Reading list (2021)

PART ONE: CONQUEST DYNASTIES AND THE NORTHERN SONG 900–1127

1. 1. The Five Dynasties 3

   1. I. Later Imperial China’s Place in History 3

      • “early imperial China” = Qin, Han, Northern/Southern, Sui, Tang
      • 900 CE meaningful as roughly indicated end of Tang
      • Sui+Tang had to consolidate against incursions of Inner Asian peoples, who would continue to be important
      • northern peoples’ languages mainly Turkic but also Persian-related Aryan or Tibetan-related ones
      • non-Han in other directions as well but ecological barrier to north
      • Sui, Tang houses arose in northwest after intermarriage with Turkic families
      • Tang period demographic changes: migration into south
      • confict constant feature to north
      • later Tang emperors pawns of military leaders

   2. II. The Course of Five Dynasties History 8

      • which polities were “dynasties” rather than “states” was decided retroactively in Song times to make sure somebody was conferred legitimacy at any given point
      • they did have much more land than the ten states. but some of the ten states were far more stable

PART THREE: CHINA AND THE MONGOL WORLD

1. 17. The Career of the Great Khan Chinggis 403

   • Temüjin born 1162, confirmed Chinggis Khan 1206

   1. I. Backgrounds of Mongol History 403

      • Mongols go from small tribal group to largest empire ever in half-century under Temüjin
      • Mongols little recorded till 10th, 11th centuries
      • “Mengwu” recorded who went from Manchurian forest → southwest into steppe nomadism
      • 9th century Turkic Kirghiz destroyed Uighur empire making vacuum Khitans and others of “Mongol” language entered
      • Mongols emerged distinctly early 12th cent., one among other nomadic tribal confederations
      • early 13th century, Chinggis Khan merged distinct tribes into new “Mongol”
      • ethnolinguistic criteria fluid until contingent unification

   2. II. The Ethnic Geography of Inner Asia in the Late Twelfth Century 407

      • Mongols occupied small corner. grasslands, treeless hills
      • to north, between steppe and Siberian forests: semi-nomadic H&G Oyirats, Buriats, Kirghiz
      • to west, stronger Nestorian confederations: Merkits (hostile) and Kerait confed. (friendly), then Turkic-literate Naimans
      • (wester: Kara Khitai/Western Liao)
      • Uighurs at this stage sedentary, disunited, literate: mediators of culture to steppe (Christianity, Manichaeism, Buddhism)
      • south: Nestorian Ongüts, descended from Shatuo Turks
      • less south: Ongirats, source of consorts
      • to east: the powerful hated Tatars
      • along W. Liao River, Khitan homeland—resentment of Jurchens
      • Xi Xia strategically important because: held Gansu Corridor and potential source of mounted warriors

   3. III. Mongol Nomadic Economy and Social Life 410

      • Mongol advantage was total mobility
      • horse usage source of steppe mobility; horse range limited by desert
      • Mongols used horses, sheep+goat herds, oxens for wagons, camels for logistical support. animals sources of food, milk, leather+felt garments, horn+bone, droppings for fuel. fish and hunting, no agriculture
        • trading or raiding necessary for grains+textiles, raw iron/metals
      • variable living standards, flexibility/multi-competency needed
      • fluid, reformable structure roughly composed of family, circle, lineage, tribe, confederation. tribal exogamy
      • most similar to Khitans
      • fairly wide range of roles for women

   4. IV. The Mongols Emerge into History 413

      • Secret History of the Mongols composed after death of Chinggis Khan: legendary origins and emergence into history

   5. V. The Youth of Temiijin 414

      • Temüjin’s father, Yesugei the Brave: leader but not khan, poisoned by Tatars after arranging Temüjin’s marriage to Ongirat girl Börte
      • Temüjin claims his wife and gets favor of Keraits
      • the evil Merkits abduct Börte, the valiant Temüjin abducts her back
      • from 1206, Temüjin is Chinggis Khan, boundless/universal leader

   6. VI. Chinggis Khan as Nation Builder 419

      • 1190s: Chinggis and Ongirats wage successful war against Tatars, Chinggis makes enemy of kinsman Jamukha who repeatedly makes war against him
      • 1200s: successful wars against Keraits (former allies) and Merkits (hated), both disbanded and redistributed among divisions. Tatar men exterminated
      • Jamukha, Naimans, remnants of other enemies band together. in 1204 Chinggis subdues, absorbs them, executes Jamukha—Chinggis rules steppe, former nations reduced to nominal “clans”
      • Chinggis rules through “companions” nököd and elite military guard keshigten. decimal military organization. no stable political organs
      • Chinggis characterized by personal magnanimity and pragmatic annihilation
      • creates written body of judgements, the Mongol Jasagh
      • c. 1204 voluntary submission of Uighurs and Ongüts—literate, Turkic-speaking, Nestorian, experienced with Chinese-style government. major appropriation of writing technology but Mongols did not become literate

Sera's notes

Here begins.

bit doer's notes

thots on reading 1:

• the choice of starting period feels fairly well-justified, particularly because it seems to allow the centering of the complex interactions between china and inner asia, which (by a cursory reading) kick into a new gear around this time
• it also feels like the historiographic circumstances of the period are being well-noted and paid attention to. the fact that "we are perforce almost completely dependent on Chinese sources" etc being put front-and-center is what we like to see
• i can't help but wonder what the dynamics of this time (the extensive cultural transmission, the political upheaval, and so on) must have felt like, qualitatively, to people at various social strata in the period. fortunately we do get some interesting glimpses of such (like abaoji's, uh, failson, to be jocular about it), and i feel like this book is able to present individual accounts, and historical accounts of individual people, without feeling like it's falling into great-man nonsense. eager to see more of it
• hopefully my thoughts on this will get more honed and specific as we delve further into the book. my own relative ignorance about chinese history prohibits me from really having Takes about what's going on, which is why these initial comments are, i guess, more meta than they are concerned with the history itself

Preface to the First Edition (13)

• previous translations heavily abridged—Waley takes <⅓ chapters and removes the poetry

Abbreviations (16)

Introduction (21)

1. I. Historical and Literary Antecedents

   • Xuanzang (596?–664) one of many to travel to India for the sake of Buddhism
   • born Henan, affected confucianism early on but age 13 joined monastics in eastern Tang capital Luoyang, later going to Chang’an to continue studies
   • Sui (581–618) reunification as political context
   • religious revival—Sui Wendi looked for approval from all three, built stupas etc.
   • Xuanzang studied Nirvāṇa Sūtra, Mahāyāna-saṁparigraha śāstra. former indicates buddhahood attainable as super great ultimate state
   • latter is Yogācāra so it’s iffy on how many can actually make it to the end. Xuanzang worried about whether he’s one of them. calvinist moment
   • Xuanzang decides he needs Yogā-cārya-bhūmi śāstra to really get Yogācāra. but Tang Taizong (r. 627–649) not allowing people to leave country. Xuanzang leaves anyway
   • makes it to mid-India Magadha Kingdom c. 631, leaves 643, arrives back 645 with pile of scriptures
   • next nineteen years spent translating, writing. happy end
   • life written into dynastic history, fictionalized etc., becomes v popular
   • 13th century story earliest clear version of what would become XYJ
   • where did the monkey come from? there are some Ming stories with too sinister white ape figure. but maybe combined with other stuff
   • Hanumat connection?? previously dismissed but “fund of shared motifs” idea now seems more plausible
     • animals do not listen to confucian teachings

2. II. Text and Authorship

   • feels like the continued attribution of the text to Wu Cheng’en is just out of desire to have somebody to name
   • Shidetang edition preface reads out bodily allegory in esoteric terminology. second preface complementary. accords with Quanzhen Daoism influenced by Chan concerns

3. III. The Uses and Sources of Poetry

   • text obviously alternates prose and poetry. typical buddhist stuff. and then the Blessed One, wishing to elaborate on this further, spoke the following verses: <same stuff again but rhymed>. this intro talks like you may have read the Dazhidulun even tho the only version in english is that one derived from a questionable french translation lol
   • poems act as snapshots
   • standard imagery formulae used but now in this more elaborate “A, B. A because blah blah blah, B in that blah blah blah” format
   • seasonal change emphasizes time and difficulty of journey, tho specific places are barely distinguishable

Introduction: Between Ontology and Ethology (14)

• Jakob von Uexküll, A Stroll Through the Environments of Animals and Humans (1934): being an animal is about environment (Umwelt)

1. Jakob von Uexküll’s Theories of Life (20)

1. Biography and Historical Background (22)

   • against Darwinism, vague ideas about too much mechanism being anti-God

2. Nature’s Conformity with Plan (25)

3. Umweltforschung (34)

   • considers himself to be following Kant. but he populates a world with more subjectivities than the seemingly single one of Kant
   • there are as many worlds as there are subjects. and the subject and world are reciprocally defined
   • something like a flower is perceived as an adornment for a human, pipe of liquid for an insect, path to cross for an ant, nourishment for cow: [just like Amerindian perspectivism where the jaguar perceives what we call blood as manioc beer?]¹
     • [then, what it means to “be” manioc beer is not about some ineffable qualia but a particular significance to me: beer is merely what is good to drink]
   • Umwelt as soap bubble around each being. microcosms. but how (im)penetrable are these?
   • tick anecdote
     • only 3 cues (“affects” per Deleuze)
   • musical terminology
     1. chime/rhythm of cells
     2. melody of organs, bringing together cells
     3. symphony of the organism: adds together chimes, rhythms, melodies
     4. harmony of organisms: at least 2 organisms. including colony or swarm or pack
     5. composition of nature: no specific end, but generalizing from previous
   • always going on about “conformity with plan” [only Deleuze could redeem this lol]
   • what kind of musical composition is this?

4. Biosemiotics (41)

   • not only a biology of subjects but an intersubjective theory of nature
   • counterpoint, duets, etc. are used as terms instead of Other’s gaze, consciousness, empathy, etc.
   • late text, The Theory of Meaning: life can only be understood thru importance of Bedeutung
   • biosemiotics applies to animal language, genetic code, etc.: have to interpret signs in life. word not used by Uexküll but retroactively applied
   • was not familiar with Peirce or Saussure
   • friendship with neo-Kantian Ernst Cassirer
   • creation of Umwelt happens thru intepretative work of organism. behavior is responding to signs, making world into signs
   • example of world interaction: the mammal emits odor and blood heat, i.e. signs to the tick
   • Uexküll does not elaborate theory of interp per se
   • bee and flower have to have “likeness” each to other for symbiosis [but is this unnatural participation an image?…]
   • spider web gains a “fly-likeness” by adopting themes from fly melody
   • spider appropriates fly to become fly-like, not explicable as “instinct”
   • intentionality? Husserl
   • Uexküll demonstrates an “anticipation” (web). like aristotelian potentiality? potential is to be like the other creature, not itself. susceptible to essentialist, but crossing species
   • lifeless things and forces play role in Umwelt. [do we fall into vitalism by saying worlds are everywhere except for the nonliving? what world does a rock have? a thermostat?]
   • the tick relates not to the mammal as such (a whole individual), but to the odor it gives off. [the baby with the mother’s breast, partial objects]

5. Concluding Remarks (49)

   • Uexküll falls short when it comes to “the body”

4. The Theme of the Animal Melody: Merleau-Ponty and the Umwelt (128)

1. The Structure of Behavior (129)

   • instead of naturalist/empiricist/mechanical account of life or opposed idealist one (vitalism, psychology, transcendental philosophy), M-P wants to start from “neutral” behavior
   • what about the problems of “behaviorism,” the externally-observable?
     • M-P: behaviorism continues “atomistic interpretation” of organism in disguise
   • something about organism irreducible to atomistic interpretation but that does not slip in vitalist life force (back to organicism…maybe check out Yuk Hui?cite:yukhui6372)
   • behavior is a “form” executing a higher relation between organism and surroundings
   • [maybe ought to read this M-P book]
   • behavior lets us access mode of being-animal, expressed as being-in-the-world
   • Goldstein’s gestalt theory of organism

5. The-Animal-Stalks-at-Five-O’Clock: Deleuze’s Affection for Uexküll (164)

1. Problematic Organisms (164)

   • teh organisme is th enemy
   • problem with the organism is that it is a solution and not a problem

Chapter 1. Marxism, Queer Liberalism, and the Quandary of Two Chinas

• queer and marxism opposed on grounds that china is following US homonormativity
• suzhi discourse normalization. fuck money boys
• Rofel, Desiring China and Other Modernities: "maoist socialism thought to restrain human desire"
  • Travis Kong, Chinese Male Homosexualities: complicity between homo identity and neoliberalism
• critique of queer liberalism assumes postsocialism has happened to everything
• this book: 1949 division of PRC/ROC shaped cn queer thought. postwar cn queer writers fused marxism with gender/sexuality stuff in theory/lit
• only about PRC/ROC not sinophone
• engagement with geopolitics in these writings
• account for distinctiveness of cn queer theory separate from euro-american
• queer marxist intellectual tradition has much to offer etc
• lit/cult studies in NA make marxism a specialization cos theyre stupid
• writers in this book examine marxist style topics of sociality

1. Beyond Neoliberal Homonationalism

   • homonorm critik (US+CN) informed by queer temporality theory + affective turn
   • postsocialist PRC, post-martial law ROC have entered a "liberalism" but stimulates marxist criticism
   • mainland proliferation of sexual discourses. tongqi/beards/living widows as social minority (who pathologize gay husbands)
   • opportunistic voyeurism of queers. Fang Gang, Homosexuality in China (1995). Li YInHe and Wang Xiaobo, Their World.
   • how does being queer matter?
   • other queer marxism³ more about queering marxism
   • take cn materials seriously as theory
   • reading fiction as theory and society as text lol. fucking complit phd

2. The Quandary of Two Chinas

   • taiwan and partitioning of koreas shows cold war never really ended in east asia
   • queer movement meant to index taiwanese political liberalism after 1987 lifting of martial law. political liberalism (queer visibility) = economic liberalism (free trade)
   • taiwan studied as either surrogate china or as "road not taken" of china without communism
   • lifting of martial law did not change that much
   • liberalism conflates political and economic. taiwan as emblem of success of capitalism in non-west
   • taiwan politics is pan-green coalition led by DPP dedicated to de jure independence vs "one china" pan-blue of KMT and economic cooperation with PRC. greens want taiwanese identity

3. Why Does Queer Theory Need the Chinas?

   • china as object of theoretical reflection
   • queer theory caught up in cult comparison
   • late 80s early 90s q theory concerned with postulation of universal patriarchy. Lévi-Strauss, Lacan, Butler. Butler wants to put cultural variability into gender by calling very vaguely on existence of non- or differently-patriarchal other
   • “highly Western notions of oppression”
   • Epistemology of the Closet similarly makes its argument within a totalized “Western culture” based on distinction from presumably the East but with no words on it
   • Foucault scientia sexualis vs ars erotica differentiates “modern” and “pre-modern” “West” (somehow going from ancient greece to contemporary france) while putting every single Oriental country together and not affording them any historical change
   • David Halperin uses sleight of hand to go from admitting postcolonial criticism to affirming tolerance

4. Queer Marxism: An Alternative to Liberal Pluralist Analysis

   • queer theory needs to fix its constitutive definition against china
   • queer marxism does not ask for toleration but asks about historical processes
   • rundown of chapters

Chapter 2. Chinese Queer Theory

1. The Dilemmas of Queer Theory in China

   • Aibai columnist Damien Lu says we need science not queer theory, nature/nurture = essentialism/constructivism. queer theory = Sedgwick, Butler, Adrienne Rich??, Diana Fuss (who???)
   • considers q theory an american thing. so anyone in china writing abt queer stuff must just be using translated western concept and not be original. hates theory itself
   • interviewing queer filmmaker/cult theorist/novelist Cui Zi'en
     • his queer thinking has much broader audience than academic subspecialty. but he is the only openly gay academic. being open detracts from “objectivity” in research
   • layer of bureaucrats and experts, sexologists and sociologists. i spit on you! all they care about is containing AIDS and even tho homosexuality isn’t a mental illness before it’s like “only the doctor can have the truth of the patient”
     • gradually changing to more cultural analysis. Pan Suiming, Sex Revolution in China (2006); Pan Suiming and Huang Yingying, Evidence of the Success of Sex Revolution in China
   • so why does cn need q theory? against empiricism
     • understanding of homosexuality as public health/social order concern consistent with legal framework where sex between men was “hooliganism”/social order disruption (liumang zui) not sodomy
   • cold war legacy where research is about delivering clear info about the Other. equivalent to area studies and their anti-theoriness in the US
     • knowledge abt 1st world divided by discipline, abt 2nd/3rd world by area
   • NGOs→AIDS research→sexuality studies
     • Lucetta Kam: 2 types of study. het sociological studies from outside vs personal accts, anecdotal evidence, sociological interviews—similar otherization
     • chinese study gay the way americans study chinese
   • queer marxists considered here: Cui Zi'en, Josephine Chuen-juei Ho, Ding Naifei, Liu Jen-peng, Wang Ping, Ning Yin-Bin

2. Homosexuality with Chinese Characteristics

   • since late 1980s cross-strait queer conferences and so on
   • lot of examination in there of crossover of sexuality, gender, 2 chinas issue
     • tongzhi comrade, lala lesbian from taiwanese song
   • ku-er as queer and cool. or guaitai queer/freak/mutant. lot of people coming up with stuff
   • always debating nomenclature and whether it’s okay to use the word queer. annoying
   • homosexuals never persecuted per se because never recognized. gotten under name of liumang zui hooliganism. not a sex crime. lesbianism even harder to target. Qing criminalized jijian, illicit anal sex. hahaha hooliganism came about as translation of lumpenproletariat
   • good and bad terms both came from marxism
   • group of theorists in HK, Taiwan, mainland claim tongzhi are separate from Western queers out of fear of cultural imperialism
   • basic hypothesis that China had pre-Western 4k year record of tolerance for same-sex relations. Chou Wah-shan says this. homosexuality and homophobia both imports. “basic sociological unit in cn culture not individual but family”
   • literary examples do attest to alternative male romance (doesn’t The West have plenty of that too though??)
   • Sophie Volpp: 17th century writings were confucian moral topography classifying lust, not some proof of tolerance
     • Susan Mann: is male homoeroticism limited to literati?
   • postulation of premodern cn homoerotic culture tries to make itself impervious to queer theory and reifies nonwestern differences
   • this guy Pickowicz who wants theory derived from cn film but ignores the theory of it done by cn people

3. Cui Zi'en: The Communist International of Queer Films

   • eclectic type dude prominent since nineties. range of social types in his work, not just gays
   • author wants to somehow distinguish deriving theory from cn content and taking up cn theory, even tho the “theory” he takes up is fiction
   • unscripted films
   • lot of cum eating
   • im not gonna note all the stuff here
   • Cui not a fan of ku'er and tongzhi, says tongxinglian. tries to invoke stigma

4. Queer Dialogues with Marx: Josephine Ho’s Sexual Revolution

   • Josephine Ho at forefront of sex-positive feminism in Taiwan
   • split between pro-sexuality feminists and state feminists seems similar to here
   • but notably the pro-sexuality ones have been closely linked to labor movement
   • 2003 conservative women’s groups sued Ho because her university website had a page on sexual practices linking zoophilia stuff. she got a lot of support against them
   • division between gender as object of feminism and sexuality as object of gay studies
   • Marx formal vs substantive equality: making inequality formally nonexistent just means you aren’t allowed to criticize it anymore
   • 1990s Taiwan series of rape and murders of women. damn okay. media leaked photos of victim’s naked mutilated body
   • Ho: women “lose” economically in every case. seen naked by a man: lose. see one naked: lose. sex as a loss. etc. need psychic revolution in sex to change gender
   • WLW or woman-identified-woman renaturalizes true love or identification as prerequisite for legitimate connection between human beings
   • Ho reads Reich
     • [how do we integrate pro-sex and anti-(anti-)sex?]
   • blah blah blah energetics of libido/labor. we need to get past this!
   • state feminists backed by global governance against queers. [governance feminism]

5. Queer Minority Discourse and Reticent Poetics

   • G/SRAT: founded by feminists expelled from Awakening Foundation for supporting ex-licensed prostitutes movement
   • this mf just straight up said transgendered
   • G/SRAT wants “pluralism of relationships” against merely “marriage equality”
   • government housing subsidy is for (het) married couples only. which affects single people and not only same-sex couple who want to marry!
   • Liu Jen-peng and Ding Naifei use Zhuangzi parable about penumbra to show “reticent poetics,” how supposed tolerance produces unspeakability of queer
   • Ding, “Stigma of Sex and Sex Work”: mainstream feminists’ rejection of sex work as labor is not from transcultural sex fear but from transplantation of premodern class stigma of the maid and little wife

6. A Marxist Theory by Non-Marxists? Revolution in/of the Queer Subject

   • Althusserian stuff about how value of labor power is determined also by the moral element (Marx says this) in society, demands of social reproduction
   • mutual exclusivity of gender and sexuality means women are desexualized and unified while sexuality shunted off as a varying thing but one had by fags
   • author actually says the p word as part of a litany of others. is there specific writing about that in the cn sources that he just doesn’t want to risk bringing up specifically or feels isn’t relevant enough?

Chapter 3. The Rise of the Queer Chinese Novel

• when/why did people start telling stories abt gays in chinese? important for issue of describing homo/hetero definition and for queer ID
  • foucault thing
• homosexual male characters per se appear in eighties taiwan authors in a context of engagements with marxism
• many focus only on 90s tongzhi wenxue as if it’s a total rupture
• Chen Ran, Private Life (1996) has an 11yo girl with a woman in her twenties…
• idea that it’s Qing homoeroticism → crushing of queer expression by communism and anti-communism → nineties

1. The First Queer Novels

   • 1980s: Pai Hsien-yung, Crystal Boys and Chen Ruoxi, Paper Marriage
   • Chen and others in reading group on Marx, Lu Xun, marxist authors arrested in taiwan accused of spreading communist propaganda 1968
   • Crystal Boys often interpreted as allegory for relation to china—sanitizing its gayness
   • Pai born in Guilin, moved to Taiwan. Chen born Taiwan, moved to PRC during cult rev

2. The Marxist Roots of Modern Queer Writings

   • Chen Ruoxi thought of as anticommunist writer and not queer writer (predated nineties queer writing). moved to PRC as a maoist and had a turnaround. but queerness came first
   • Chen taken up in US as interpreter of THe Real China
   • cult rev writings and queer novel both involve discovery of hidden knowledge: revealing what is going on over there / revealing homosexuality
   • queer sexuality (not homosexuality per se) not opposed to communism because it impels rethinking of human community and intimacy
   • /Paper Marriage characters are mainlander and american, set in US, while Chen is from taiwan
   • book is very “cross-”

3. A Materialist Analysis of Queer Chinas

   • important place of economic disparity, immigration law, migrant labor

4. A Queer Discovery of Geopolitical Differences

   • simple stream of consciousness style linked to “exposé” thing

Chapter 4. Genealogies of the Self

• Xiao Sa, Song of Dreams (1980) as “genealogy of the self” in the “economic miracle” period showing how desire is caught up in US commodities
  • cope!! just because it has commodities in it doesn’t mean it’s marxist. real life has commodities in it, and just because it isn’t a total rags-to-riches fairytale doesn’t mean a story about a woman seduced by new commodities and american sex isn’t basically capitalist. yes she pines for an original “organicism” now lost. that kind of nostalgia is part and parcel of ideology

Chapter 5. Queer Human Rights in and against the Two Chinas

• this guy recites “queer human rights is a paradox” but then goes right into how you can play the powers against each other for a little recognition. what fucking happened to communism

1. Figurations of the Human

   • for yourself: when you talk about humanism and antihumanism, what does that mean?
     • this seems to be putting emphasis on primacy of the individual in humanism. but is the humanism that bothers you most actually defined by that? when it says humans are a separate and linguistic entity. rather, the “language speaks the subject” Lacanians are humanist, all too humanist. maybe this is why it’s worth differentiating structuralist and post-structuralist? you don’t ever want to hear about Derrida again, though
   • Robcis has a thing about how the french adopted Mao and cult rev to their own ends. everyone seems to think there is a basic “unfaithfulness” in all western maoisms, like an implicit accusation. but how much does that really matter? obviously you could level the same accusation against how anything is taken up in a different context from its original one. the question is just whether we can get something meaningful from “cultural revolution”
   • “you were too quick to assume humanism can’t be anti-eurocentric” okay, maybe, but: who cares: he doesn’t just have to argue it can hypothetically exists or morally blackmail you over it. he has to prove it’s compelling enough to make you drop a commitment to antihumanism

2. The Chinese Difference

   • China is used to pluralize humanity and so becomes a supplement to western thought even in its supposed self-undoing. okay, that’s true. our non-humanism definitely needs to not articulate itself as subversion of existing western humanism. Agamben and all those other fuckers clearly get this wrong. and so it needs to draw on various non-western ideas just as much and in the same way it does western ones
   • lmao Kristeva comes through with some insane tale of China as the pure world of women beyond Oedipus. you have to reject the disease as well as the cure and cure the cure as well as the disease!
   • damn you gotta cite this in your forms of life shit

3. A Case Study: Queer Illiberalism in Taiwan

   • this guy loves saying “transgendered”
   • “human rights” discourse in Taiwan is actually just nativism, way of self-defining against PRC and GMD
   • you only get membership in the category of human if you meet certain expectations and even when they nominally extend it to gays they actually don’t accept most gay behaviors or having AIDS or anything
   • tongzhi movement has been pretty successful…in deradicalizing the queer movement!!

4. The Human in Marxism

   • thinks Marx has an idea of the human not vulnerable to this
   • he keeps saying Marx thinks “the labors of all human beings, measured by time units, are morally equivalent.” morally equivalent?? what the fuck, dude. is he talking about abstract labor? that equivalence is a specific institution and not the moral basis for anything!

Sorghum and Steel: The Socialist Developmental Regime and the Forging of China (11)

1. Introduction: Transitions (12)

   • late 16th century, Portuguese mercenary Galeote Pereira writes account of Ming “China”
   • point of indeterminacy when europe and china are on par and it’s not clear why europe ought to surpass china
   • Pereira finds no china, though: only myriad ethno-linguistic groups in different countries that happen to be under the Great Ming
   • “China” was not an entity in itself so much as “the point beyond which we can’t incorporate things into the economy”
   • contemporary Sino-Keynesian narrative still sees China as economic exception, one that might somehow right global economic decline thru deus ex machina
   • empire entered to discover that it doesn’t exist
   • opening of china and incoherence of Qing gave rise to oppose-qing-restore-ming slogan. meaning: try again from that point when it wasn’t determined whether the west or china would reach capitalism
   • socialism in china was not a mode of production and industrial system was not automatically capitalist. “money” was neither tributary money nor capitalist value
   • peasantry became entrenched and no substantial urbanization

2. Precedents (21)

   1. The Last Dynasties

      • Ming (1368–1644) tried to create independent peasantry by giving them land
      • peasants not only farmed but produced handicrafts: silk, cotton
      • taxes paid in grain+cloth+labor
      • dual rural production lasts until collectivization
      • handicrafts remained rural more and longer than in europe
        • euro (urban) production increased in capital intensiveness
        • so rural-urban divide weaker in Ming, Qing, production more diffuse
        • mid-C13 to C19, urban population shrank relative to rural (reverse of euro)
      • production growth→rural surplus, regional+empire trade→Ming commercial revolution
      • silver tax payment. domination by landowning gentry esp. in south
      • “patriarchal landlordism”
      • tenancy contracts more impersonal, tenants poorer
      • weakening late C16 Ming: peasant resistance to rent. rebellions
        • radical+millenarian critiques of profit-seeking, egalitarian/communal ideals
        • bonded labor, patriarchal landlordism ended
        • patriarchal peasant household instead. survival logic not profit logic
      • rural gentry shift to commerce, usury over land rents
      • households produce more surplus for selling. start depending on market purchases
      • gentry as market middlemen care not for productivity of labor process. economy remains rural

   2. From Household to World Market

      • late C19–1930s: most developed cn agriculture formally subsumed into global market
      • rural consumption levels not far below urban
      • agricult international market breaking up with WWI, Great Depression
        • hence construct national capitalist economy. Guomindang models on Italian Fascism
      • 1930s slight agricultural surplus but not mobilized for investment
      • jp invasion brings WWII

   3. Party, City and Peasant

      • CCP founded 1921 as mainly urban
      • but kinda wiped out by 1927–28 KMT Shanghai (and then some) Massacre. 300k killed
      • only rural base survives. land expropriation, peasant army formed
        • CCP takes control of urban areas with little organic connection thanks to massacres 20 years previous

   4. Foreign Capital and the Port Cities

      • cities transformed by quadrupled foreign investments, tho factory production still minimal
      • city production still not inefficient or outdated
      • machine techniques added to decentralized networked production
      • this network was basis of port cities run on “coolie” labor
        • often little more than slavery
      • guandu shangban “official supervision, merchant management”
      • formal owners of factories/workshops not interested in details as long as they got profit. third parties as technical/administrative managers. but it was batou “gang bosses” i.e. experienced workers who had practical authority, interfaced with administrators
      • guild masters, secret societies
        • formed under Qing as rebel organizations but became criminal rackets under KMT
      • secret societies went public after 1911 and mostly became reactionary
      • urban industrial projects limited outside port cities. self-sufficient “islands”

   5. Rural Revolution

      • late 1920s CCP has trouble organizing in southern villages
        • state integrated with local society
        • while in north, villages less class-divided, more unified against state intrusion
          • so deepening class divisions not most effective strategy there
      • northern success became model for revolution. populism derived from uneven rural subsumption
        • class struggle politics vs national unity politics
        • CCP mirrored KMT. but had concept of “the people” not quite citizenship not quite class. subjective stance toward revolution determines inclusion
      • progress of land reform oscillated with CCP politics
      • CCP tried to identify active elements among poor peasantry to lead struggle against landlords, rich peasants. eliminate exploiters while building active support
        • categorizing villagers by 5 class groups
      • land holdings largely equalized. vast majority of families benefited, Party gained support

   6. Japanese Manchuria

      • Japanese invasion wrecked transportation infrastructure and banking system
      • but also created immense industrial structure in Manchuria and Taiwan. twice as big as all pre-war industry
      • geography reformatted: less dependence on ports, export zones, more on inland industry for domestic consumption
        • also northeastern urbanization
      • jp manufacturing zone large-scale, vertically-integrated, incorporated into wartime bureaucracy. mimicking US Taylorism
      • cn workers procured by gang bosses. but on much bigger scale, in vertical hierarchy
      • workers seen as temporary. also “casuals” without gang boss
        • non-casuals got (often daily) wages from gang bosses, + food/housing/medical care/etc
        • less pay for migrants
      • early ’40s labor shortage: jp forcibly recruit labor. students, prisoners, vagrants, floating unemployed/casual workers. unpaid
        • April 1940 National Army Law
        • comparable to euro holocaust??
      • attempts to rationalize/modernize labor thru Taylorism, hourly wages existing alongside threat of violence
      • opposition not clear. more like transition to value production? “primitive accumulation”
      • jpn Manchuria attempts transition from formal subsumption to real subsumption, generating more relative surplus value not just absolute
      • so not a “feudal” backslide

   7. The Industrial Inheritance

      • after 1945 collapse, Manchuria capital transferred to KMT ownership. structure geared towards electical production
      • KMT unable to manage bureaucracy
      • KMT ceding territory during Civil War. jpn industrial structure inherited by CCP
      • CCP needs to face industrialization/urbanization questions, and fuse urban/rural wings
        • Liu Shaoqi’s urban wing had been clandestine during jp/KMT control. stressed secrecy, discipline
      • can’t simply restart industrial system without its horrid expansionism continuing and its tendency to suck in migrants, cut them off from means of subsistence
      • how to utilize it while transforming relations of production?

   8. The Urban Divide

      • cities become central in attempt to expand modernization
      • socialist era: “national economy” sewn together from sub-regions. grain standard, net funneling of resources country→city. urban/rural divide widened
      • problem: cheapen basic costs of life without undermining egalitarianism by privileging cities
      • urbanization models wrongly assume that it is inherently capitalist and cities inherently anti-feudalist
      • bad assumption city must be abolished, population distributed
        • Engels made city basic characteristic of civilization
        • transposition of this Marx/Engels point ignores that cn already had equitable population distribution. “fixing” is worsening

   9. New Democracy, Old Economy

      • city issue postponed to end of Civil War
      • afterwards: owners in southern port cities bargain technical skills, foreign credit access for favorable treatment
        • cities seized precisely when wartime stimulus is ending and US blockade beginning
      • many unemployed workers. who had pushed for end of jp and KMT. ton of strikes. 3million+workers partaking in 1947
      • need revival of production in cities
      • 1949: cities reliant on imports of consumer goods, food. residents in slums. blockade prevents imports
        • to get them running: need to produce own concrete, steel, electricity, grain
        • or, to abandon for agrarian socialism: what about famine, expanded commercial activity, warlordism, foreign invasion, loss of ties with USSR?
      • precedent for agrarian socialism thanks to early C20 movements. anarchists etc. anti-modern tolstoyan Liu Shipei. early CCP members came from anarchist movement
      • program already diverged from Soviet path anyway. attachment to stalinism mostly pragmatic
      • but no agrarian abundance. cities in ruins, too
      • port city owners+managers had not fled. needed them
      • 3 actors in economic restructuring: military, urban CCP wing, skilled+literate workers
      • recruitment drive
      • managerial system in port cities looked like pre-war one
      • recovery policy
        • sino-soviet treaty (russian privileges in Manchuria, $300mil loan)
        • “coexistence policy”: complete bourgeois revolution in cities. appease and buy out capitalists
      • private sector at 85% of retail sales. central to circulation
      • stimulus. industrialists return, even. Korean War begins
      • large port taxes
        • after land reform complete, banking nationalized: private industry restricted. Jan 1952 Five Anti- campaign against employers

   10. Channeling Unrest

       • urban workers disappointed
         • concessions given. wages increased, livelihoods improved (peace helps)
         • mass org.s created. new unions, national Labor Board
       • Democratic Reform Movement, Three- and Five-Anti movements: reform industry, eradicate corruption, sneaking-in of gang bosses/secret societies/Nationalist sympathizers
       • 1952, 5 Anti: denunciations of capitalists. extension of land reform method to cities. windfall to state: US $1.7bil seized in fines. private enterprises made empty shells
       • vents worker anger and cripples private capital but causes dip in production. roll it back!
       • reorient economy around state. lot of state corp.s and retail stores. foreign trade in state hands
       • Party largely held worker trust in early 50s
       • “New Democracy” pragmatic response to material limits
       • urban industrial development = momentary continuation of transition to capitalism

   11. Nations to State

       • experimentation in northeast with non-cap production
       • but Manchuria still a problem. have to produce and distribute, build housing, modernize agriculture, extend infrastructure
       • Party and military only nationwide orgs left, only menas of coordination. fusion of Party and state
         • tho in the past, governance at a distance had been the norm
       • local quasi-statelessness had once made anarchism seem promising. majority of pop. hardly touched by the state directly
       • anarchists had hoped to strengthen local forms of resistance. but failed. several prominent anarchists merged with KMT right wing. remainder joined CCP
       • so instead, CCP does opposite of tradition: hands-on approach, with common people as basic constituents of state
       • USSR is emblematic but flawed example of non-capitalism in isolation
       • creating national economy and state: ideologically determined. not clear how to assist in global revolution tho
       • continuation of war not feasible. Korean War was test
       • CCP changed by years in countryside. when urban and based in cosmopolitan ports, had been more internationalist
       • new CCP not in a climate suiting it
       • land-bound peasantry had no inherent global-ness. tho neither was there ancient “Chineseness”
       • strong state is not because of cultural attachment to strong state! the opposite. it’s a 180 from quasi-statelessness where “micro-states” of overlapping hierarchy levels dominated
       • nationalists wanted state as disciplinary force. communists as redistributive+coordinative power, rooted to the local and connecting it to general social wealth. this was source of peasant support, not simply nationalist mythology

3. Development (58)

   1. Early Nationalization

      • economic entity China meant to be created in stages
        • collectivized countyside, nationalized cities
        • actually resulted into inconsistent nodes, uneven production
      • city nationalization: 5 stages
        • 1st: seize “bureaucratic capital,” foreign enterprises
      • 1949: state industry = 41.3% gross output value of large modern industries
        • under value imperatives
      • port cities, large firms not immediately nationalized but squeezed, then taken
      • stages 2–5: nationalize banking (went quick), transfer private firms, handicraft/peddler co-ops, make urban communes
      • stages 3, 4: crucial and drawn out. halt New Democracy’s partial transition to capitalism
      • private enterprises made “joint” state/private
      • private commercial enterprises (distribution) transformed more slowly. 1953 wholesale trade becomes “state commerce”
      • stage 4 means reinventing industry from roots where previously small enterprises
      • private handicraftsmen encouraged to join together. spanned New Democracy era to start of First Five-Year Plan. basically completed by end of 1956

   2. Origins of the First Five-Year Plan

      • previous distribution methods destroyed, only Party+state capable of large-scale coordination
      • Northeast: wariness about comprehensive economic planning till 1951. voiced by a regional Party leader, Gao Gang
      • but he trusted Russian system. New Record Movement rationalizes planning with standardized accounting system. administration standardized with “responsibility system” and “one-man management”
      • new systems could not prevent waste and inefficiency: incentive to report false production numbers
        • even with direct worker control. poor equipment, lack of trained people
      • “Soviet Model” of industrial organization in Northeast, “Shangai Model”/“East China Model” in port cities
        • but Soviet Model actually frankenstein of 2 tendencies: High Stalinist mass mobilization, crash production drives, close Party supervision vs one-man management strict hierarchy from 1930s USSR 5 year plans
      • Russians technicians participating have de facto authority
      • 1-man management not practiced in pure form: checks against factory directors having total executive control
      • so dual power in enterprises of Party vs technical leadership. plus worker-self-management practises

   3. Extending the Soviet Model

      • Northeast/Soviets only obvious example for non-capitalist direction for industry
      • 1952 Gao Gang to complete design of 1st 5 Year Plan: spread NE model by starting new industrial centers, unifying country economically
      • planning hierarchy constantly shifting. peaks of activity in 1953, 1956
      • application of model unprecedented in Manchuria or USSR. but existing literature mistaken to think it is reducible to original (Soviet) theory
      • 2 models in contest. but transforming each other, and very haphazard. heuristic division
      • 2 systems different gravities
      • Northeast inherited jp infrastructure. needed high-level management, strict division of labor, much data collection
      • East China Model dominant before due to Party emphasis on rebuilding ports. varying sizes of firms. inheritances from imperial and warlord periods
      • 1st 5 Year Plan (1953–57): Soviet over East China
        • production up massively. social mobility. nostalgic golden age
      • price incentives replaced with quantity measures. financial system “passive”: money flows accommodate plan, not independently controlling allocation
      • complexity, unevenness of system prevented simple planning. industry > agriculture
      • geographical disproportion: move industrial center of gravity away from coast
      • handicrafts industry gone so industrial activity mostly urban. population urban or in new agricultural collectives. urban/rural divide now clear between grain producers/consumers
      • but industrial build-up is to supply and modernize agriculture
      • countryside lacking roads, rails, electricity, petroleum products. need massive infrastructure investment, but need urban industry built up for that, but need agricult modernized to feed industrial workforce of migrants from country. chicken/egg
      • global war still a worry, so can’t slow down. instead, extract more surplus from peasantry, move more workers handicrafts→agriculture, use intermediate technologies for agricult production. population movement controls to stop rural→urban migration

   4. Tiers

      • bureaucracy of Party and that of state: top growth sector, 1949–57
      • govt cadres eating almost 10% national budget by 1955
      • attempted wage hierarchy for urban workers: mid-level cadres slightly > manual laborers = university lecturers, assistant engineers > primary school teachers > lowest grade heavy industrial workers
      • urban worker income increased 42.8% 1952–57, but not distributed evenly
      • bonuses, wage-grades, etc. trying to rationalize by Soviet Model whose ideal form never prefected
      • end of 50s, planners realize system not suited to conditions
      • wage hierarchies never actually came about as intended
      • actual hierarchies: certain regions over others (not good for ports)

   5. Labor Without Value

      • new welfare institutions. reproduction of labor within factory. lineage with previous local independent solutions
      • “Capital Construction Investment” funds cover worker reproduction as well as machines
      • 1st 5 Year Plan as much about worker/state interface, reproduction+control of workers as about industry
      • absolute surplus from industry to sustain welfare payments, but not surplus value: detached from wage, also no labor market
      • new hierarchies include proximity to central state, heavy industry sector
      • little pay distinction between skilled, unskilled still
      • workers decide who gets wage promotions: mostly older ones with larger families. informal seniority
      • workers fixed thru danwei and later hukou system. labor turnover solved by migration limiting. but results in resurfacing of family: ~inherited positions
      • dingti “replacement,” hiring relatives of current employees
      • inter-enterprise coordination also not matching 5 Year Plan. decentralization

   6. Collectivizing Rural Labor

      • monumental countryside transformation at same time. collectivization in 4 stages. first 2 form cooperatives, second 2 collectives
      • 1954, 1955: second stage. mutual aid teams become lower agricultural producers’ cooperatives, ~20 households each
      • cooperatives not simply imposed. financial credit, technical aid as incentives. little major resistance. crops divided by labor and land, mostly labor
      • contribution counted in work points
      • households in coops: 2% (1954) becomes 98% (end of 1956)
      • 1956, 1967: third stage. lower-stage coops become collectives aka higher agricultural producers cooperatives. individual households give up ownership to 40–200 household collectives. more resistance
      • 1958 Great Leap Forward begins. larger collectives: communes. market town+surrounding villages. 10s of 1000s of members. emerged locally then recognized, called transition to communism
      • rural industrialization
      • diverting labor into non-agricult, supplanting old handicrafts. 7.5mil new factories in <1year of GLF
      • fenpei zhidu “distribution system” modified so last of private economy (small land plots) suppressed
        • ditto with markets. gongjizhi “free supply” replacing gongzizhi labor renumeration
        • communal dining halls
      • gendered labor division. male labor in sideline work, women in farming and with fewer workpoints
        • unpaid female repro labor
      • incentive to produce more or lie, planning replaced with decent. targets
      • huge communes made hard for peasants to see link between their labor and their subsistence. crop yields dropping 1959, food running out in dining halls, peasants staying home to keep energy
      • famine. 1960, free supply system permanently put on hold
      • lost control of rural pop

   7. The Rural-Urban Relationship

      • trying to build foundation for industrial dev. in 1950s
      • remove grain merchants who took part of rural surplus. tonggou tongxiao “unified purchasing/marketing” system, fall 1953
      • hukou household registration system eventually dividing grain producers vs consumers
        • urban danwei system: urban hukou holders receive subsidized grain quota

   8. The First Strike Wave

      • city conflicts starting 1956. 1957, one of largest strike waves in cn history. centered on coastl, river ports
      • port cities were sliding down pol/econ hierarchy
      • workers lacking compared to state-owned heavy industry, also benefits gradually stripped
      • nominal wage fall in joint enterprises, replaced by benefits, piece-rate systems. + production increase push
      • hiring restrictions eased to fulfill planning targets. loss of control over recruitment starting 1956
      • massive urbanization, migration
      • late 1956 early 1957: Hundred Flowers. trick or earnest reform attempt?
      • answer: response to extreme social conflicts. recognized dynamics already there, concealed them beneath complaints of students+intellectuals
      • 1919 Shanhai had 56 strikes, 33 connected with May Fourth. 1925, 175, 100 conncected with May Thirtieth. 1946, 280. spring 1957, though? 587 enterprises, 30k workers
      • parallels drawn to Hungarian rebellion
      • but industrial restructuring that created strike wave also created divisions that strikers could not overcome. <½ workers at factory usually involved. younger ones only
      • sometime strikes crushed by more privileged workers
      • Party sided with more privileged ones (older, permanent, with urban families)
      • mobilizational policies in response. compared to USSR but actually more local, practical solutions to conficts
      • reform implementation uneven and distrusted
      • reforms unable to meet demands or prevent strike increase
      • workers suffered more repression in strike crackdown than students+intellectuals in concurrent Anti-Rightist campaign
        • “bad elements”=criminality, not “rightists”=political
      • anti-bureaucratic reforms continued but complaints had no central grievance to cohere around, did not become true general strike
      • failure can’t be attributed simply to state repression
        • state mostly did not have to intervene; worker division did it
      • hence strikers as bad elements. exaggerated but kernel of truth
      • Shanghai workers’ wage+benefit decline did not match experience of NE, or ambiguous or opposite national trends

   9. Origins of the Great Leap Forward in the Cities

      • GLF industrial policities = haphazard response to crises
      • risks of both non-capitalist inequalities and transition to capitalism
      • industrial bottleneck by 1957
      • initially GLF looked same as previous industrialization pushes
      • party confident of returns on investment
      • quick political changes due to no particular stabilizing accumulation regime or social structure
      • “no mode of production fully cohered during the socialist developmental regime”
      • at same time: state tends to ossify if it stays the same too long
      • major changes to industrial base happening underneath
      • rectification within Party due to worker dissatisfaction
      • further growth of Party cadre
      • decentralization of planning

   10. The Great Decentralization

       • formalization of de facto practices
       • 9,300 (1957) → 1,200 (end of 1958) enterprises under central admin
       • competition between local hierarchies
       • labor allocation decent: recruiting from society
       • several months 1958/1959, 3million peasants to urban areas, but also tons doing rural industry
       • urban communes with socialized housework
       • massive numbers and mostly women
       • removing worker divisions: abolished bonuses+piece rates, made supervisors+cadres do manual labor, workers participate in management
       • speculative crisis that would make decent planning go out of control was pushed by bottom-up competitive pressure
       • “non-management” in some Guangzhou factories, workers withdrawing cash for work when they deem fit
       • GLF successful in stopping labor unrest after 1957 and reinvigorating state and Party
       • but this was smth unsettled, not necessarily communist tendency
       • total mobilization resembled imperial and jp things
       • not reducible to any lineage or influence
         • only unifying factor: developmental push, siphoning of grain surplus to city

4. Ossification (101)

   1. Collapse and Militarization

      • GLF undercut regime by disrupting surplus grain flow
      • production decreased, peasants fled countryside
      • systemic crisis. ’57 strike wave would expand to nationwise communist project collapse
      • 1961 emergency measures, rationing
      • consumer goods prices stabilized at higher level while wages held back, welfare reduced
      • labor recruitment restrictions on countryside to restore danwei stability. industry workforce reduced
      • enabled by hukou household registration system
      • post-1958, urban/rural status heritable with limited nongzhuanfei rural-to-urban moving
      • example: 83,540 old workers in Shanghai made to retire after GLF, losing benefits
      • caste-like social control system thru danwei, dang’an, hukou
      • stagnating productivity. illnesses from malnutrition, overwork
      • temporary worker without benefits, under direction of Liu Shaoqi
      • “worker-peasants” were like those causing 56–57 unrest but now expanded
      • narrative of “going back on GLF” disguises permanence of changes like hukou, worker-peasants
      • planning authority never truly recentralized. “middle-heavy” structure
      • new small/medium GLF enterprises not consolidated, used for their flexibility
      • new uneven geography. Sino-Soviet ties broken. v isolated
      • “Third Front” industrialization focused on safe interior, for independence. Yunnan/Guizhou/Sichuan, then Hunan/Hubei/Shaanxi, then Qinghai/Gansu/Ningxia
      • investment exceeding 1st 5 Year Plan. without Soviet help! self-sufficiency our watchword
      • self-sufficiency+militarization saturating society
      • privileges by seniority and political persuasion, not technical skill
      • militarization of production
      • corruption increasing. workers running small businesses on side. Party-state fusion, bureaucratic ossification, black markets ⇒ red capitalist class eventually

   2. Rural Retrenchment

      • rollback of rural GLF policies in early sixties. 3 level ownership in communes, 1962
      • villages in shengchan dui “production teams” 10–50 households, choosing own leadership. basic accounting unit
        • need to totally rebuild disintegrated collective system: 1963 Socialist Education Movement
      • for recovery, collectives must focus on agriculture, drop sidelines+handicrafts
        • end of millennia-old dual rural economy, deepened rural/urban divide
      • back to distribution by work. but frequently adjusted. payment in kind
      • hard to implement work incentives without creating inequality
      • 1961 household contract system
      • caused inequality, then unpopularity. 1963 task-rate system replaces
      • c. 1966, “Dazhai sytem” of mutual appraisal
      • disintegrated early ’70s. back to task-rate
      • peasant income thru private markets. put more effort into private than collective plots
      • cellular structure of power in collective system. workpoints only meaningful intra-unit
      • rural-urban relationship increasingly subdivided over socialist era

   3. Rural Production and the Collective System

      • 3 tier system flexible, ag production slowly growing
      • rural collectivization not socialist but state-imposed to secure rural/urban split. enlargement of old family farm, in a sense
      • increased yields came from increased labor inputs, while labor productivity dropped
      • extra labor for building low-cost ag infrastructure. some real successes (increase in irrigated land)
      • new cropping patterns, intensified land usage. grain over diversification
      • goal: maximize absolute surplus
      • some rural industrialization under 1970 “New Leap Forward”
      • rural residents largely losers, extracted from to power urban industry

   4. The Role of Ideology

      • “two-line struggle” picture: illusion of state propaganda
      • Shanghai Textbook published 1978, translated by American Maoists 1994. common reference point for supporters and detractors
      • but a complete fiction
      • in fact, many divergent practices yoked together by state [isn’t this just how history always is??]
      • experiment could accurately be said to be doing any of a billion things. but aspects do not give full picture
      • state had to become pervasive to hold things together, but this made it ossify
      • state only capable of allocation and punishment. daily administration goes to autarkic economic units
      • project ultimately dependent on keeping support of significant amt of population
      • mythology not just made by conspiratorial leaders. indigenous traditions adapted to new ends
      • ideology becoming more ossified as well
      • myths must be read as myths

   5. Class under Socialism

      • debates about meaning of class
      • GLF+rentrencment held back tensions but also recreated them. “students” doing debates also linked into workplace [weird paragraph]
      • piecemeal class formation. on true proletariat in socialist era. not until reform years. but bourgeoisie nowadays
      • declassing in revolution
      • intentional result. designations of former class detailed in countryside but limited in cities
      • labels were initially changeable and had significant support from pop., NOT totalitarian measure from above
      • but outlived mandate, became part of dang’an political “portfolio” as social control means, and heritable
      • new meanings in privilege hierarchy
      • 1950s made more consistent divisions
      • elites vs non-elites (elites not unified)
      • grain producers vs grain consumers
      • grain consumers would become stratified
      • grain consumers not true proletariat: not integrated in global capitalism + no domestic value accumulation
      • but proto-proletariat. deprivation of immediate subsistence means

5. Ruination (126)

   1. Class Critique in the Cultural Revolution

      • designations of pre-rev class are how class conceived in Hundred Flowers and early Cult Rev. but eventually development of inchoate “ultra-left” faction (jizuopai)
      • early understanding of class conservative. response to call to rebel came from well-off children of political elites, understood their class as good. “bloodline theory” xuetong lun
      • summer to fall 1966 early cult rel in Beijing. post rev split between state officials and various nonred class background people
      • only ~15,20% of middle school students eligible for first Red Guard group
      • people with bad class background discriminated against in restaurants/buses/hospitals, kept out of city. but nonred people able to attack reactionary elements in party
      • bloodline focus changed to sneaky capitalist elements in party. conspiracy theory of past power-holders infiltrating
      • late 66, early 67: more radical views of class, more widespread social mobilization
        • winter 66–67 Shanghai. January Storm, “Shanghai Commune.” but actually a defeat (contra Meisner, Jiang, Badiou)
      • unlike Beijing, Shanghai had enormous working class. very precarious workforce now, 30–40% temporaries and worker-peasants, many women
      • wages still stagnating, non-wage benefits constrained. many deported to country, even veteran workers. some eventually rehired only as temporary
      • recreated situation of 57. Rebel Headquarters of Red Workers (nov 1966) temporary worker group. not limited to Shanghai either. All-China Red Laborer Rebels’ Headquarters
      • demanding jobs back and urban hukou status
      • municipal authorities caved. more decentralization
      • factional fighting among workers. Scarlet Guards vs Worker’s General Headquarters. latter win. production decline
      • paralysis. workers taking some direct control over production and day-to-day life. shortlived in Shanghai. state agents intervene in name of same workers who disrupted order
      • late Jan. PLA called in—military seizing infrastructure
      • Party endorsed formation of “Shanghai People’s Commune” invoking Paris Commune while giving control to PLA and working against rebels
      • Commune still seen as excessive. Mao recommends “triple alliances” dominated by military. outright militarization of politics begins
      • not suppression of politicized pop. demanding participatory government. rebels had unclear goals. (okay?)
      • risk of political fragmentation

   2. The New Trends of Thought

      • “new trends of thought” xinshichao despite simplicity of rebel politics. april 3 faction si san pai
      • 1967 Wuhan Incident where PLA division commander mutinied
      • but other rebels focused on analysis
      • ultras convinced new privileged class coming about, cult rel should redistribute property and power
      • new trend groups popping up everywhere, limited in ability to spread ideas but counter-intuitively promoted by their suppression
      • small and with differing ideas. vague on how to make a new party or commune or anything
      • portrayed as lacking true organizational practice. but had some idea of themselves as self-aware outgrowth of mass struggles
      • risk for party that self-awareness might spread
      • in Changsha a small ultra-left group fairly strong. rusticated youth, PLA veterans, apprentices, temporaries
      • rusticates most able to spread info, link struggles. documented travelling between cities

   3. Suppression, Concessions and Terror

      • crushed. military suppression, conservative terror. 1967, 1968 PLA repression and establishment of Revolutionary Committees
      • not chaotic violence on all sides but state terror by PLA-dominated Rev Committees. new organs of political/military power consolidating that power. conducting massacres etc
      • significant state resources against new trends despite their smallness. rough continuity between later state terror and violence against black lineages
      • “white terror disguised in red garb”
      • but failure of new trends not only due to terror. difficulty of atomization, mobility restrictions
      • socialist state privilege structure was not in terminal crisis
      • proto-proletariat would be forced to fight not only Party but Party’s original supporters. Party not an alien force on an unwilling population
      • 1970 militarized industries expanded, planning decentralized, investment in countryside. production back up. basic education spread. emphasis on keeping support of loyal parts of population
        • Perry 2012 wen and wu
      • but high-end universities shut down, children of red and expert elites sent to farms and factories. highly visible attempts at reform
      • in factories, emphasis on anti- local corruption, participatory decisions. but back to seniority
      • party restructured. many benefits reduced while some peasants, women brought up. “obama effect” of Chen Yonggui. also Jiang Qing

   4. The Limits of Heresy

      • new trends didn’t try to clandestine. upbraided
      • mythological fervor. iconography, quotation books, mango cult (what??)
      • rituals reinforcing myth of state=Party=nation. pilgrimage to historical sites. but sanitized
      • restriction of information by Party censorship
      • Mao thought as lingua franca even among ultra-left
      • spreading project to peasantry they ignored need for secrecy and pushed an idea of communist countryside that nobody there wanted. very military. lmao they establish a militia as soon as someone complains
      • new trends as heretical current opposed to ruling ideology but still subsumed by its terms
      • final note that we have to mourn them

6. Conclusion: Unbinding (145)

   • good to look back to for summary

Gleaning the Welfare Fields: Rural Struggles in China since 1959 (151)

1. What Remains of China’s Peasantry

   • peasant nongmin 农民 not the same thing as it used to be. but urban/rural hukou still matters
     • peasant can mean rural 户口 but here the word for that is ruralites. ruralites are 60–70% of cn population, 800–950 million people. ~280mil spend most time in urban areas anyway. ruralites get rights to collective village resources
     • in non-china-specific sense: multi-generational households w/ access to small land plots mainly for direct use, with surplus for sale/rent/taxes. not capitalist or fully proletarian. far fewer of these
   • peasant category far less applicable since 2000s though true in seventies to nineties
     • “welfare fields”
     • rural pop being proletarianized just as deindustrialization renders them surplus
   • 户口 no longer as important as it used to be but still means urban ruralites could be sent back in a pinch and have collective resource rights
   • village agricult rights stabilize surplus pop but are being undermined. ruralites either defend or want to just cash in on losing it
   • non-wage and waged relations to accumulation
     • expropriation via
       • land grabs (caused most reaction mid-2000s thru ~’13)
       • pollution destroying thme (2013)
       • privatization (80s–90s)
       • taxes made into capital thru “collective” for-profit enterprise (stopped by mid-2000s abolition of rural taxes)
     • “unequal exchange” (marxist peasant studies term) on market for
       • credit
       • agro inputs
       • sale of products
       • farmland rent (rare in china but becoming more common in certain forms)
     • certain family member exploited thru wages, which whole household can depend on
   • life shaped by capital thru state force ofc
   • collective action
     • petition higher authorities, do blockades/riots/occupations of stolen land, govt bldgs
     • co-ops + marketing networks
     • usual tactics in wage relations: involve authorities, use strikes/slowdowns/sabotage/riots
     • against exclusion: criminality, occupation, begging/vending, occasional riot

2. Resistance to State Extraction during the Socialist Period (1959–1978)

   • 1959 GLF famine put break between peasants and CCP
   • hiding grain, stealing from collective fields, looting granaries, going to cities to demand food, sometimes taking up arms
   • partial decollectivization+restoration of markets mitigated unrest but too late: peasants now resistant to mobilization for campaigns or even normal stuff
     • collective production “inefficiency” decried by Dengists, liberals, actually resistance to state extraction peasants saw as alien, irrational
   • peasants wanted more control over production

3. Resistance to Price Fluctuations during the Period of Transition (mid-1980s to early 1990s)

   • early 80s a golden age for peasants
   • but reaching limit in mid-80s. and marketization increasing
   • late-80s unrest as cash crop prices fall below production cost

4. Resistance to Local State Expropriation in the 1990s and early 2000s

   • beginning of young peasant migration to coastal cities. struggles of peasants becomes rural struggles + struggles of ruralites as proletarians
   • late 1980s to early 2ks, lot of direct expropriation. “corrupt local officials”—primitive accumulation and accumulation by dispossession

5. “All Power to the Peasants”

   • late 80s began with small-scale revenge baofu vs local officials/newly rich
   • increasing scale. ’93 15k peasants Renshou County, Sichuan 6 month uprising against taxes and fees
   • ’93 Anhui 300 members Autonomous Peasant Committee attacked county govt building
   • starting ’87, “villager self-government” policy at least nominally promoting village level democracy. Beijing as ally to peasants
   • backfired? moral justification? mass incidents number increasing. but transforms class struggle into reformism, rights-defense
   • militant rebellions peaking 1997

6. The Response

   • 1998 revision to ’87 regulations. promote democratic decision-making but strengthen party committees, repression. riot police. 30k new rural police stations!
   • 2000 new strategic line: reform then (2006) abolish rural taxes and fees. New Socialist Countryside
     • development actually facilitates expropriation
     • but subsidies, welfare programs
   • 3rd wave of post-Mao intellectual debates abt role, destiny of peasants in cn development
     • New Left intellectual Wen Tiejun: “rural problem in 3 dimensions” sannong wenti: crux is comomdification of land, labor, money
   • New Rural Reconstruction: constructive use of peasant will. little success stemming outflow of ruralites
   • NRR, NSC responding to fear of possible recession following 1997 asian financial crisis. wanted to increase rural consumption

7. Land Conflicts in the 1990s and early 2000s

   • ongoing land grabs/“enclosure movement” quandi yundong dates to late 80s relaxation of land management policies
   • 1986–1996: 1.8mil arable hectares lost to development. 1996–2004: 8mil. 74mil peasant households affected (315mil individuals). worldwide unprecedented proportion enclosure movement
   • land grabs became preeminent expropriation forms. ruralites spending time in cities—struggles become negotiation about price of land they want to sell anyway
   • early 2ks Shanchawang Village, Shaanxi occupation against bad terms—ends in failure
   • local govts using criminal networks, Beijing using real not rubber bullets
   • starting 2003 Beijing tries to rein in seizures but fails
   • rural taxes ended → local govts need money → land grabs
   • local govt loans maturing
   • NSC mainly applied in ways that get local govts money. real estate development so surreptitious land grabs
   • Beijing “red line” of 120mil arable hectares minimum for food security
   • subverted by invention of “land development rights” as a commodity. can redevelop a bit of land if you make equivalent farmland elsewhere. so move peasants from old houses to high-rises and convert old lots to farmland. 20% of ruralites forced into highrises

8. Continued Land Grabs and Resistance since the mid-2000s

   • so land grab epidemic escalates! as does resistance
   • govt agencies selling land for >40× what they actually give villagers. <20% of relocated/“urbanized” farmers actually get urban 户口, 9.4% medical insurance, etc.
   • local authorities better at minimizing resistance. but lots more mass incidents

9. An Escalating Spiral of… What, Exactly?

   • “peasants” don’t actually use the land or want to keep it if they can get good money
   • peasants protesting a highway they actually think will help them because they don’t want it to disturb a hill of geomantic significance

10. Wukan, Wukan!

    • 2011 uprising in Wukan Village, Lufeng County, Shanwei Prefecture, Guangdong
    • accusations of corruption and embezzlement, leasing out of collective farmland for private development
    • 2009, small group of young villagers including Zhuang Liehong start kicking up a fuss and making videos
    • initial disinterest but largest remaining land plot starts to be cleared and people get rowdy
    • govt claims to be negotiating but then detains Zhuang. a man dies in police custody
    • ultimate failure to regain more than a quarter of stolen land. some used as collateral for bank loans by occupying companies. elected village representatives in 2012 voted not to return it to agro: keep it commercial but give equal rent shares to villagers as they were entitled
    • not a matter of their basis of survival being expropriated. but the young are being forced to move back due to manufacturing decline, living off parents, need rent as supplement

11. Wuhan, Wuhan!

    • 2010 movement to protect East Lake, Wuhan, Hubei: linking rural land conflict with purposive urbanite anti-capitalism
    • urban participants want to preserve lake environment while rural residents refuse to consider it and just want compensation
    • care when generalizing: attitude more prevalent in city outskirts where ruralites are not peasants, agro not important

12. Riots as Crucible of “Socio-Cultural Unity”?

    • shared proletarian condition as basis? (Walker)
    • doesn’t seem so. though struggles reflect same growing superfluity to accumulation
    • possible a fusion will come as things continue to exacerbate

Revisiting the Wukan Uprising of 2011: An Interview with Zhuang Liehong (183)

1. Part 1

2. Part 2

No Way Forward, No Way Back: China in the Era of Riots (191)

1. Denim and its Discontents

   • Sichuanese migrant and street vendor Tang Xuecai beaten, thought(?) killed by police in 2011, sparking riot (echo of Arab Spring) though eventually crushed
     • Xintang manufacturing district in Guangzhou: specializing in denim. rioters migrant laborers making jeans
   • Pearl River Delta cities have tons of riots and mass incidents. yet thought of? as increasing productivity region
   • mass incidents increasing over decade
   • riots and strikes in china, though frequent, are always localized and tend to restrict themselves to specific demands like ousting “corrupt” officials—apparently unlike recent movements in greece, spain, etc. where the demands go beyond what anyone is actually willing to concede
   • “holding pattern”—but maybe comparable to conditions before outbreak of revolutionary movements in late nineteenth century
   • Endnotes claims “holding pattern” keeps struggles from developing past riots. but a path out might be “global bottoming out”/starting with “deep downturn in India or China”

2. Field to Factory

   • cn evon dev since end of 70s: 2 major class dynamics. end of non-MoP
   • 1: solidified “bureaucratic capitalist class” (red+expert / political+technical elites)
   • 2: Tiananmen inaugurates industrial remaking of cn working class as proletariat
   • protests go on the offensive since 2010. though no independent unions (would bring repression).
   • back to defensive demands more recently. but frequency and size of mass incidents growing
   • spatial separation between reproduction in countryside and production in cities is actually characteristic of proletarianization the world over [yeah this makes sense. cf. Seccombe. early industrializing cities had insane death/birth ratios and ran completely off migration]. apparently california the same

3. The Most Recent Crisis

   • GDP in export places plummeting by 2007. layoffs, factory closures, etc.
   • 10× unemployment increase in five months (vs far lower in greece and spain over five years—latter triggering great unrest)
   • china and keynesians claim it avoided threat to order thru quick stimulus, new jobs closer to official rural residences
   • “incompleteness” of proletarianization means easy offloading of them, de facto deportation
   • but the countryside is being chopped up, these external spaces become sparse

4. Cracks in the Glass Floor

   • the difference now: capitalism undergoing crisis of reproduction. difficulty reproducing capital thru profitable investment + difficulty reproducing proletarians as productive workers. increasing surplus population [endnotes moment]
   • rise of low-paying service industries
   • characteristics of surplus pop labor (informality, precarity, illegality) become “normal” for population as a whole. “lumpenization”
   • “non-subject” “integration and exclusion” (always existed but growing)
   • colonized subjects+migrants previously drew on folk traditions of struggle, not just workers’ own identity
   • in china, wage form has not lost centrality as endnotes claims—wage increases have been won, cheapness of chinese goods is in question. and number of manufacturing workers has increased
   • lot of difficulty moving struggle across line from reproduction to production in places like greece. but in china, production is where the conflict is happening
     • state manages problem by moving workers away from production

5. No Future

   • net trend still down on industrial employment. agro employment also historically declining. services up and construction dependent on state stimulus, financial speculation, not industrial plant expansion
   • norm is not huge factory complexes with quasi-fordist discipline. 64.4% of manufacturing workers in “Rural or Township and Village Enterprises.” blurry with services sometimes
   • people wrongly expect new union syndicalism, same old model
   • worker’s movement was not exactly “revolutionary consciousness” anyway, and insurrectionary movements came as much from outside capitalism, independent peasant and indigineous traditions
   • “wage demands represent people’s deepest desires only as much as looting a store does.” it’s just the “take whatever you can get” aspect
   • it’s good that there is no worker’s movement; only the state wants that. lol
   • “can’t afford workers”?
   • abandon your village and work in the city! no, go back to the village!
   • it’s because they can’t be working-class or peasants that they give up on it and attack their conditions

6. No Past

   • limits of past struggles in china meant no one until the peasant army could do anything about the nationalists, and the peasant army wasn’t a basis for communism
   • current riots just kinda attack at random and are only held back by “direct repression and lucrative concessions” which can’t last because profitability will take a hit
   • problem of coordinating different proletarian fractions: urbanite/ruralite but also gender, race, education, incorporation into state privilege structure
   • seems right in pointing out that endnotes conflates “composition” as given with “composing” as act: as/if crisis deepens, fusing into revolutionary subject can be done. the organism is a problem and not a solution!!
   • old folk resistance traditions have dimmed (what exactly are these? can you give ethnographic examples?) and symbols of the socialist era are adopted frequently. Mao worship is common, interesting
   • despite relative deindustrialization, cn workers are at the place of actual production for global economy
   • cn workers have large amounts of technical knowledge for production, rather unlike other places

“The Future is Hidden within these Realities”: Selected Translations from Factory Stories (229)

• China on Strike: Narratives of Workers’ Resistance collects strike narratives
• Longmenzhen group interviews workers, organizes reading circles, translates foreign pamphlets, establishes international exchanges

Introduction: Sentimental Biopower

• sentimentalism is/is meant to be a way to unite the individual body with a social body through the senses
  • origin story for Foucault’s basis of biopower as working on populations. where did populations come from?
• sentimentalism builds a hierarchy of capabilities to receive/incorporate/transmit sensory impressions
• C19 nervous system “differentially pliable and agential entity”
• race and sex were not immutable, static qualities of individual body
  • they were capacities of impressibility, relationality making body gradual product of habit+environment
• because feeling circulates among people (as we say “affect” more recently), bodies can signify collectively and not singularly
  • population is governed by ideas like contagion and risk
• race/sex/species difference define relative claim to life proportionate to vitality+inertia of sensory+emotional faculties
• impression and impressibility
  • “impression” appears in Plato, Kant, Locke, etc. but is rarely commented on now
  • means both act of touching a surface and the indentation it receives in the same form
  • “change produced in some passive subject by the operation of an external cause”
  • “impressibility” = capacity to receive impressions that change a thing’s characteristics. not quite the same as impressionability
  • impressibility can mean “being too easily moved” but also responsiveness of refined nervous system (acquired over evolutionary time), ability to be transformed
• sensibility: ability to register sense impression. impressibility: agency of sensorium, ability to create attachments independently
• social constructionist accounts of race think “flexibility, mutability, relationality, and dynamism” are the answer to race’s biological determinism and fixed taxonomy
• race stabilizes economic+biological health of pop., sex difference stabilizes civilization
  • sex divides civilized body into: sentimental woman (more feeling, more animal), less susceptible more rational man, relieved of burdens of embodiment
  • 2 halves reunited thru vagina: locus of female permeability
• new materialisms replicate old racial logics
  • wow guys just found out matter is porous and agentive. scientists discovered it last week and they def have 0 biases
• says that Agamben through bare life reproduces biology as separate from culture
  • but i thought Agamben’s idea was that it is something produced that we have to get away from? describing not prescribing
  • split between organic and social came about in 1930s and 1940s
• heyday of sentimental politics of life: between emergence of heredity as biological concept (1830s) and inauguration of genetic heredity in early twentieth century
• impressibility of civilized bodymeant sexual, childless, and professional relationships could include “hereditary transmission”

1. Taxonomies of Feeling: Sensation and Sentiment in Evolutionary Race Science

• American Neo-Lamarckian school of evolution
• sentimentalism persists well into professionalization of science

1. Race Science and Sentimentalism

   • Agassiz supposedly professionalized=rooted out sentimentalism
     • but we see anecdote of how he starts believing in polygenesis after visceral aversion the first time he meets a black guy lol
     • language of sentiment, feeling, impression, contact were constitutive of C19 science in methodology, analysis, strategy
   • racial status indexed hierarchy of impressibility
   • self-control, reflective feeling to manage mutability+vulnerability of civilized body

2. First Impressions

   • going back to Plato: memory is wax tablet. materiality of substrate (consistuency of particular soul) determines how well it will work
   • Aristotle says sensation itself happens by impression, not just memory. acting object vs impressed surface
     • plastic (receives, retains new shape) or squeezable impressible objects
   • enlightenment epistemology (e.g. Locke): sense-impressions are building blocks for a persisting self
     • Locke’s civilized body has “solidity” because it can be affected but not penetrated by experiences
     • while primitivity (Children, Ideots, Savages, Illiterate) is heightened affectability. sensations pass through without being able to stick
       • indigenous people incapable of labor or property
   • annexing of impressions is suited to colonial annexing of the unknown world. self depends on outside objects to constitute itself
   • in impressibility (not just impression), mind can engage directly with world

3. The Origins of the American School of Evolution

   • geological time did not really conflict with religion
   • plasticity of children: mothers can indirectly determine whole nation over course of generations
   • Edward Drinker Cope and American School v. pro-Lamarck anti-Darwin
   • Lamarck, Zoological Philosophy (1809)
     • repeated sensations create not only substance of memory but shape of organisms with nervous systems
     • sexual reproduction transmits adaptations to progeny
     • “inner feeling” not just external sensation. gives instinct
   • sentiment accumulates, circulates

4. Taxonomies of Feeling

   • disciplinary technologies (such as sentiment)
   • security trying to regulate and “purify” national body
   • need criteria for determining biological value

5. The Evolution of Sentiment

   • biopolitics entails racialization of temporality. races are not distinct entities with diverse origins fundamentally at odds. racial difference inflitrates social body, is lingering prehistory of individual body. you are the past

6. Men’s Sentiment, Women’s Sentimentality

   • sex was invented for the civilized lol
   • women are essentially a half-level further down from men. they are more at the mercy of emotion (wouldn’t that be furhter up?)
   • splitting women and men lets you partition off the inherent vulnerability that comes with civilization
   • Cope is super misogynistic lol. and supports “voluntary polygamy”
   • but they stil kind acknowledge existence of failed women

7. Sentimental Science

   • Cope now best known for “Bone Wars” with O.C. Marsh
   • but his belief that function determines form and adaptations are transmissible was widespread in late C19 paleontology
   • sentimentalism existed among U.S. authors, scientists, reformers. broad political appeal e.g. to abolitionists, A-A feminists
   • Cope initially argued for scientific funding sentimentally (1880s), then rationally (1890s)
   • literary+cultural scholars want link between experience and body to be anti-racist but it was actually consolidation of biopower

3. Vaginal Impressions: Gyno-neurology and the Racial Origins of Sexual Difference

• Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell (1821–1910) and Dr. Mary Walker (1832–1919) make the vagina rather than the brain into the privileged locus of the plastic nervous system
• vagina is vitalist basically. the way it’s fucked and by whom (marital rape, bad character, etc.) affect its bearer and those it bears
• super-impressibility of civilized woman is turned into support for white women’s sexual+social self-determination
• “woman” as a politicized identity is a biopolitical subjectivity, created as part of a racial hierarchy
• woman, vagina, invagination, folding: the kind of subjectivity at work here, we see again, is not one independent from its environment but one that can only form an interior from its exterior, like the Deleuzian fold
• terms evolutionary or biological feminism are looked back on pejoratively as if those predicates were restrictions, when in fact they were necessary conditions

1. The Sentimental Politics of Life

   • sex split in civilized being lets men get the benefits while offloading the risks. female is a kind of externalized open supplement that can be reattached when necessary only
   • female subjectivity located in impressibility of vagina. aw fuck we just invented cis women
   • for Blackwell and Walker, orgasm is no longer an autonomic response like a sneeze. physical passion is connected to mental impression, sexual stimulation increases intellectual capacity (lmao)
   • but only if you do it right!! have to focus on HER pleasure. no marital rape. and also no frequentations mauvaises, no STDs, no dildos or corsets, no overstimulation through frequent use like the poors, no speculums (which destroy modesty), etc.
   • precocious stimulation of children → arrestment in primitive stage, destruction of civilized Christian chastity
     • have to match nervous sensation with the “force of will,” not developed in youth (déjà vu)
   • black women’s genitalia: highly reactive, barely receptive. easily aroused, but can’t absorb effects of impressions
   • gynecology and C-section originated in unanaesthetized experimentation on enslaved and free black women and poor urban immigrants. but they don’t really feel pain, right?
     • J. Marion Sims (founded gynecology, invented speculum) bought 14 women for experimental surgery. “directly productive for Walker and Blackwell’s gyno-neurology”—he supported white women physicians

2. The Vaginal Fold

   • impressibility is like an earlier version of Deleuze’s affect and fold. but meant to guard the human rather than try to overturn it
   • Spillers flesh/body
   • civilized sexuality is vaginal, not anal or oral
     • Walker says divorce him if he asks for anal lol
     • DO NOT EAT CUM…discusting
   • hermaphroditism is primitive reversion
   • “Impressibility names a particular biopolitical affect regime”
   • contemporary affect theory: affect is in capacities to act and be acted upon
   • C19 nervous system not localized in brain (suck it Malabou). women basically have their brain in their pussy
   • contagion of traits from mistress to dick to kids (what??)
   • husband collects bad traits from fucking bad women then gives them to his wife
   • heredity functioned similar how to affect is talked about today. not a property of the body but materialization of contact within the fold
   • brain is not a central controller in C19. ganglions of nerves throughout body dispatch and process stimuli, form responses+attachments thru “sympathetic nervous link” with organs. distributed consciousness, like many small brains

3. Handmaidens of Heredity

   • in Humean style logic, medicine is a cause of racial improvement, a cause of good heredity, even if the physician doesn’t have children. so a female doctor is like a hypermother

4. Incremental Life: Biophilanthropy and the Child Migrants of the Lower East Side

• Lydia Maria Child in Lower East Side Manhattan, Sep 1841: these kids would be better off orphans
• 1850s, Rev. Charles Loring Brace actually does it. cf. Co-ire on legal abduction in England etc.
  • Children’s Aid Society. industrial schools and Emigration Plan/orphan train. 100k Irish-/German-/Italian-American kids from Manhattan made laborers in rural homes across US
  • parental affection an obstacle to national prosperity
• biophilanthropy: impressing heritable endowment on poor/uncivilized children to make their labor profitable to population
  • for the youths and families, this is the ancient scheme of alleviating room/board needs by contracting kids out to the country for several years
• C19 biopolitics: broad liberal reform mechanisms premised on physical+mental+moral malleability

1. The Influences of Charles Loring Brace

   • minister Horace Bushnell who sermonized on the “plastic, passive soul” of the child, receptive to good or bad influences
   • “paradigmatic reformer as social controller of labor” vs “enlightened innovator.” instead: both are part of sentimental politics of life paradigm
   • forefront of prot theology. read Darwin early. told transcendentalists abt it.
   • moved to NYC in 1851 at auspicious moment in development of US biopolitics. 1850 census tabulating names, mortality rates, disability, crime, econ production, schooling, etc.
     • Lower East Side tenements portrayed by middle class as source of contagion
   • police chief whipping up public concern abt criminal children
   • alter biology of uncilized by altering environment
   • replacing incarceration with domestic rehabilitation. youth in small units with Firm But Caring guardian
   • Brace worried about great masses of poor identifying capital as their enemy and revolting
   • only Irish, German, and somewhat Italian immigrant children targeted. AA children and offspring of immigrants from other nature deemed insufficiently malleable

2. Impressible Heredity

   • took up Darwin’s “gemmules” (particles of heredity) as mechanism for environmental influence impressing itself
   • Darwin emphasized random variation producing adaptations put to test by natural selection but nonspecialists like Brace were more Lamarckian, disregarded haphazardness and emphasized habitual tendencies
     • contrast with C20 understanding of natural selection as tribunal privileging repro-advantageous traits
   • 1930s would bring modern evolutionary synthesis with population genetics
   • saw body as so unstable that best marker of race was language and not physical difference. but non-north-europeans did not have self-control and moderation of sensation
   • city reserved for wealthy but serviced by poor (like contemporary neolib NYC), suburbs for working classes
   • origins of eugenics are within sentimental politics of life

3. Exile and Evolution

   • Emigration Plan removing any children who resisted legal economy. kids sent around as packages. train going west, dishing out kids to farmers or whoever till it ran out
   • majority ended up in upstate NY tho. kids lied to that theirs was the only car sent west and they were lucky
   • kids banned from contacting their family or friends, or bringing their own things
   • boys privileged but 39% of victims were girls. girls supposedly impressed with more evil, and less fixable. refused to work with girls over 12 on the assumption they would already be engaged in sex trade
   • girls super good at playing innocent for benefits while secretly being Evil lol
   • newsboys idealized as not much corrupted at heart. wit and cunning supposed to be a good thing in them anyway. enterpreneurial spirit
   • sentimental business contract—homoeroticism—Horation Alger
   • lmao this Brace dude was fuickgn gay…
   • same-sex intimacy potentially generative, reproductive, central to evolutionary advancement [reproduction happens all the time and not only in impregnation and birth!!]

4. The Child versus the Trope

   • for poor parents, putting-out of children was normal stuff. [cf. Boswell]
   • average age was actually 14–17, contra program rhetoric. and more about employment than familial sentimental eroticized connection
   • foundling infants
   • children in CAS at mercy of new employer families
   • physical and sexual abuse. forced to act like these people are your family while working for them. cleaning bathrooms you can’t use. pretending things are fine when the man from the CAS comes by to ask

5. Orphan Plots

   • stories of orphans on possibility of redeeming them
   • true maternal affection is recognizing that you have to give up your child, according to Uncle Tom’s Tenement

6. Biophilanthropy

   • off-reservation boarding schools, reconstruction-era campaigns for training black southern youth, etc. following similar models
   • child’s body as product of its milieu rather than parentage [cf. Høeg]
   • Indian child has to be cut off from everyone to be remade
   • everything about the past has to be exterminated. parental contact, innate inheritance, domestic keepsakes
   • similarly in prison. solitary confinement immobilizing, isolating, depriving of sensation. then inundation in flows of domesticated time. fuck
   • reformers creating prison system saw it as humanizing inverse to “dehumanizing violence” of slave plantation. but perform death to achieve it
   • biophilanthropy makes whiteness emerge (whitens groups) along with developing conquered west
   • mark you for death, then force you to live
   • eating, sleeping, zoning out as sensorial modes of self-sovereignty [what does that mean for time?]

7. From the Sentimental Politics of Life to Sterilization

   • Emigration Plan unraveling by 1870s. Catholics complaining that they were trying to de-catholicize Irish youth. but also fixation of heredity in biological/social sciences
     • Richard Dugdale, The Jukes (1877): eugenic family histories arguing for sterilization [cf. Painter]
   • accusing Brace and CAS of polluting the west with the unfixably criminal. kids sent to Virginia, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska instead
   • scandals where CAS accused of stealing kids and kids used it to run away [this is all rly interesting compared against /Co-ire/]
   • 1899 states start forbidding bringing mentally deficient or diseased children to them
   • “sentimental biopower stitched together free market capitalism, urban reform, western settlement, domestic literature, and child welfare as complementary endeavors that could remake the hereditary material of indigent youth and, by extension, the racial health of the settler nation”
   • genetics and modern sexuality emerged together at the turn of the century. hereditary transmission exclusively hereditary. masculine intimacy no longer a credible instrument

PART ONE: THE USE OF BODIES

1. 1. The Human Being without Work

   • does slave-sexuality as “use of the body” have any bearing on the development of a communist sexual ethics? that is, one different from the currently-popular conception based on self-ownership

2. 7. The Animate Instrument and Technology

   • (7.6) instrumentality, which is the core of “technology,” did not have any role as a cause for Aristotle. this was instead introduced in the middle ages (in the face of new technologies). instrumental causality is split so that employing e.g. an axe simultaneously produces both an effect in line with its own nature (chopping something) and an effect in line with its employer’s aim (creating a bed). by using itself, it is used by someone else—rather like Aristotle’s slaves. the second effect is swappable, arbitrary; hence technology can be employed to any end.
     • instrumental cause is not only specification of the efficient cause, but transforms the instrument’s final cause
     • the reciprocal affective relation of “use” gives way to the hierarchical relation of instrumentality
   • (7.7) wow instrumentality = slavery? who woulda guessed

3. 8. The Inappropriable

   • (8.6) use is “the field of tension whose poles are style and manner, appropriation and expropriation,” not only in language but in bodies. does this idea of awkward mannerism vs fluid stylistic non-ownership actually make sense in how we act towards “ours”/“others’” bodies?
   • (8.10) “what is at stake in this selective sharing of use-of-oneself [privacy] is in reality the very constitution of the self”

   1. Intermezzo I

      • the “cynical” modality of linking self-practice to truth-courage, which “seeks the truth of being human not in a doctrine but in a certain form of life, which by subverting the current models of society makes of the bios philosophikos a challenge and a scandal”

PART TWO: AN ARCHEOLOGY OF ONTOLOGY

• “Ontology or first philosophy has constituted for centuries the fundamental historical a priori of Western thought.”—as always, Agamben flip-flops between “humanity” and “Western.” reopening access to first philosophy? is non-Western thought included or excluded from first philosophy, as it stands? why can’t we just go over there?
• historical a priori shifted from knowledge (Kant) to language (Nietzsche, Benjamin, Foucault, Benveniste)—what are these a priori for? things like the “common sense” recognition of objects, the nature of space and time? don’t these inhere in any form of life and not just linguistic ones? language exists only in use. you probably misunderstand Kant…

1. 3. Toward a Modal Ontology

   • Spinoza’s middle-voice expression of God vs dao 道 and qi 器

III. FORM-OF-LIFE

1. 5. Toward an Ontology of Style

   “the elements of the final state are hidden in the present, not in the tendencies that appear progressive but in the most insignificant and contemptible”: this is the “Benjaminian principle,” i.e. his messianic shards, which Agamben here uses to find the future form-of-life in the present criminal pervert. it’s a form of interpenetration and foreshadowing. EVERYTHING IS IN EVERYTHING (Anaxagoras applies this to corporeal substances, and Ranciere to ideas). it’s also at issue in Chinese discourses about self-cultivation (how does Confucius find the way of the former kings in every person?) and tathāgatagarbha doctrine. this is arguably perfected in Tiantai. progressive realization of communism vs immediate communization = gradual vs sudden enlightenment!!

PART TWO: LITURGY AND RULE

1. 1. Regula Vitae

   • [Agamben goes on about “habit.” monk’s clothing = monk’s way of living, habitus. and he says that the relation between rule and life in the form of life involves a different relation than the common or Kantian “application of the universal to the particular.” instead, what we have here is a universal rule that subsists in the particular, and a kind of reciprocal relation between the life (source, as a whole, of the rule) and the rule (which regulates life). the rule is a kind of externalization (Stiegler? next bit about orality/writing?) of the very life that it then falls back on. this is very reminiscent of what Hegel has to say about habit, specifically as it existed for the ancient greeks: it is a raising of the particular to the universal in a single life, a kind of transcendence of the particular supposedly not possible to non-human animals (except in reproduction). to live artistically…(Nietzche?).]

II, 2. STASIS: Civil War as a Political Paradigm

1. 1. Stasis

   1. theory of civil war undeveloped despite “global civil war” a. aleph: we have theory of war, theory of peace, but not theory of civil war. “global civil war” term appears in both Arendt and Schmittcite:carlschmitt6435 in 1963
   2. concept of revolution was formerly popular and substituted for civil war. though Agamben thinks the difference between the two probably nominal
   3. this is not a theory of civil war but historical examination of it in Ancient Greece and Hobbes a. for Greece we have Nicole Loraux, especially La Cité divisée (1997) and “La guerre dans la famille”
   4. novelty of Loraux is situating stasis in relation to okos and polis: redrawing topology. not about overcoming family/private/particular in city/public/general a. Plato, Menexenus: oikeios polemos oxymoronic. implication that internecine war is only to better reconvene later
   5. stasis refers back to family (war within bloodline) and may be overcome through family (intermarriage of rival clans) a. tragedy also attests to b. civil war is inherent to the Greek city insofar as it is inherent to the Greek family
   6. Nakōnē, Sicily after stasis, C3BCE: draw lots to divide citizens into fives and create new families, brothers by election. natural family neutralized but through fraternity i.e. kinship. [shouldn’t we bring up here the specific maleness of fraternal organization, the things D&G talk about?cite:gillesdeleuze1420] city becomes family of a new kind: this is what Plato does in his Republic as well a. Loraux: suppose city is a phylon and stasis its revealer. make city an oikos and on horizon of oikeios polemos looms festival of reconciliation. 2 operations with unresolvable tension
   7. summary of Loraux “La guerre” in 3 points a. stasis calls into question “Greek politics is oikos overcome in polis” b. stasis is inherent to family, not from outside, so its outbreak demonstrates presence of oikos in polis c. oikos is ambivalent, causing both division and reconciliation d. but here we have only learned about oikos (through stasis), not stasis itself!
   8. zoé excluded from polis, confined to oikos. Aristotle dedicates polis to good life, over mere life a. but life implicated in good life, family in city, zoé in bíos
   9. Loraux’s 2nd, 3rd theses problematic. why does family entail conflict, how does it also give resolution? a. Loraux says in civil war you kill nearest kin (from Plato, Laws). Agamben: stasis make brother vs enemy, household vs city undecidable. stasis is not from within household but indifference between oikos and polis b. from Thucydides, again: stasis at border of the two c. reinterpreting Nakōnē: kinship is dissolved so factional bond looks like closest thing to it
   10. what is place of stasis? neither family nor city, but blur between. oikos politicized, polis oeconomized a. Solon’s law punishes with loss of civil rights the citizen who fails to fight for one of two sides in civil war b. not taking part in stasis → expulsion from polis = confinement to oikos. stasis reveals your true political or unpolitical character
   11. Christian Meier: C5BCE “politicization” of the citizenry. social belonging now defined not by conditions, statuses (with citizenship secondary), but by citizenship a. aleph: supremacy of political unity also means persistence of civil war if friend/enemy distinction defines field (following Schmitt)
   12. institution of amnesty. stasis defined by requirement of participation and requirement of forgetting afterwards a. Agamben says amnēstia is not mere forgetting or repression but “an exhortation not to make bad use of memory”; stasis much too important to actually forget
   13. provisory conclusions a. stasis does not originate in oikos. it is included-through-exclusion in jurPol order b. oikos/polis relation constitutes fuzzy zone between political and not. no political “substance” but politics as field traversed by currents of politicization (toward city) and depoliticization (toward family). moving toward oikos (city becoming family)? civil war repoliticizes relationships. moving toward polis (family bond weakening)? stasis recodifies family relationships according to political terms c. maybe Classical Greece had an equilibrium, but mostly there has been vacilization between extreme ends of oeconomic management and total mobilization d. aleph: THE FORM THAT CIVIL WAR HAS ACQUIRED TODAY IN WORLD HISTORY IS TERRORISM. terrorism = civil war when the stakes of politics are life itself.

2. 2. Leviathan and Behemoth

   1. famous cover to Leviathan. it’s pretty cool! but iconic as it is, i can’t say i have the interest to match Agamben’s in iconology a. veil. esotericism b. Schmitt agrees c. aleph: stage curtain history
   2. people face sovereign. blah blah blah
   3. big guy lives outside city
   4. city is empty
   5. significance of optical device, Leviathan as optical illusion
   6. distinction in Hobbes between people and multitude. the people is single and is what is invested in the king, which then leaves only the multitude
   7. “dissolved multitude” also can’t re-invest anybody. has to be distinguished from the “disunited multitude” that made the investment in the first place. disunited multitude ⇒ people-king ⇒ dissolved multitude (alongside people-king?) ⇒ (civil war) ⇒ repeat
   8. so what really disappears isn’t the multitude but the people, which goes into the sovereign and rules the city without being able to live in it. the multitude is unpolitical but is what the city is founded by excluding. [Agamben moment lol] a. armed guards and plague doctors still shown in the city. biopolitics foreshadowing?? b. Hobbes sees dissolved multitude as like mass of plague victims to be treated/governed
   9. “people” has terminological ambivalence of political legitimacy source and also removed from legitimate exertion. even if granted it has constituent power, it can’t use it in normative setting a. Hobbesian state has “ademia” “no-people” b. aleph: Hobbes was also aware of population/people distinction
   10. if dissolved multitude stays in city, and multitude is subject of civil war, civil war always possible in State. Hobbes admits as much. and state + war coexist until one has final victory a. state of nature appears when city considered as if dissolved i.e. from perspective of civil war. SoNature = mythological projection of civil war into past // civil war = projection of SoN into city
   11. why the demonic “Leviathan”?
   12. associated with Antichrist or Satan
   13. Schmitt antisemitically falsifies Jewish understanding of Leviathan (the cad!). fact is though that leviathan flesh is served at the messianic banquet
   14. Hobbes interpreted Kingdom of God as a literal kingdom Christ will restore at second coming
   15. Leviathan’s head apparently not made of tiny dudes but an actual head. image comes from Christ as head of body of assembly a. aleph: in gospels, multitude around Jesus is never a people, always a crowd or mob
   16. 2 Thessalonians, discussing parousia: Messia vs man of lawlessness and one who restrains a. early on, latter interpreted as Antichrist of 1 John, second as Roman Empire. Schmitt sees hobbesian state as in restrainer tradition
   17. result: Hobbes was putting his book in an eschatological setting, channelling Antichrist imagery. Schmitt’s interpretation fails: Hobbes cites Paul plenty but not 2 Thess. state cannot be restrainer but the thing that gets annihilated a. Schmitt says political concepts secularized religious ones, Agamben says specifically eschatological, e.g. “crisis.” b. affinity between Hobbes and Benjamin: kingdom of God as terminus not goal of history, profane politics autonomous. no restraining function in either c. something something peace and security. lesson: we have to know theological roots of political philosophy [idk, man]

II, 1. STATE OF EXCEPTION

1. 1. The State of Exception as a Paradigm of Government

   1. Schmitt established contiguity of state of exception and sovereignty in Political Theology (1922). but is this thing at border of politics and law part of politics or law? either it consists of juridical measures that cannot be understood juridically (paradox) or it is the primordial relation of law to life a. examining this place between political and juridical necessary to answer what it means to act politically
   2. close relation between state of exception and civil war, insurrection, resistance. Hitler declared one immediately which was never repealed a. in “global civil war,” state of exception now seems like “dominant paradigm” of contemporary government. alters structure+meaning of trad. distinction between constitutional forms. indeterminacy of democracy+absolutism a. “global civil war” term appears 1963 in both Arendt and Schmitt. but real vs fictitious state of exception (siege) goes back to French public law theory, 1885: Schmitt and Benjamin are going off this
   3. 13 Nov. 2001 Bush issues “military order” authorizing “indefinite detention,” trial by “military commissions” of noncitizens suspected of terrorist involvement: shows biopolitical significance of state of exception as original structure relating law to living beings by self-suspension a. 26 Oct. 2001 Patriot Act already issued by Senate. but new order means “detainees” have indefinite status and are held indefinitely
   4. terminology problem. state of exception = Ausnahmezustand, also Notstand “state of necessity.” italian+french prefer emergency decrees, state of siege. anglos: martial law, emergency powers a. “state of exception” chosen because it is not necessarily in war a. ficticious/political state of siege goes back to 1811, Napoleon decree: can declare siege state when not besieged. 1791 states of peace (separate military/civil authorities), war (acting in concert), siege (exclusive military) a. Year 8 introduced idea of local suspension of constitution b. pleins pouvoirs “full powers” comes from canon law plenitudo potestatis: return to time before distinction of powers. legal mythologeme like state of nature
   5. 1934–48 state of exception concept notable but held in debate of constitutional dictatorship a. various writers use concept in that period b. Herbert Tingsten: seems like if you give full powers to anybody too long, democracy liquidates c. Carl J. Friedrich: constituional vs unconcsitutional dictatorship (matches Schmitt’s commissarial vs sovereign dictatorship) that safeguards or overthrows constitutional order. can’t keep first from passing over into second d. Clinton L. Rossiter: tries to justify constitutional dictatorship but gets caught on contradictions. and he knows that exception is already the rule in many places
   6. Western states roughly divided between clearly regulating state of exception (France, Germany) or not (Italy, Switzerland, England, US). scholars either want provisions for it (Schmitt) or say there is no regulating what can’t be normed. but development ignores formalization
   7. analogies to right of resistance. Italy decided it was meaningless to grant while Germany says it’s constitutionally legal to resist power that ignores constitution a. opposing arguments match those about SoE: both concern juridical significance of extra-juridical action. conflicting theses: either law must coincide witih norm, or sphere of law exceeds norm. but both agree to rule out human action removed from law b. aleph
      • history of SoE: various times in France. putting down Paris Commune
      • permanent SoE for most WWI countries
      • continued growth of exec powers for “economic emergency” afterwards
      • fr Article 16 not invoked since Apr 1961 Algerian crisis but security paradigm gradually replaces SoE
      • Weimar Constitution Article 48: Reich president can take measures to reestablish security, public order, and suspent fundamental rights
      • except between 1925 and 1929, Republic used Article 48 over and over. 250+ times. imprisoning thousands of communists, making special tribunals to pronounce capital sentences
      • Hitler could probably not had taken power if country had not been under presidential dictatorship without functioning parliament for almost 3 years
      • Schmitt justified SoE in Hindenburg presidency as “pres. as guardian of constitution”: but clearly actually transition to totalitarianism
      • Fed. Rep. did not mention SoE initially but in 1968 was added to defend “liberal-democratic constitution”
      • 1914 Swiss Federal Council granted unlimited power to guarantee security, integrity, neutrality. not even at war!
      • Italy: emergency executive decrees. laboratory for law-decrees changing to ordinary source of law
      • in every case in Italy, siege state declared without parliamentary ratification but then approved by parliament
      • Fascist Italy abused emergency decrees constantly, even having to limit itself
      • executive legislation by law-decrees has become the rule in Italy. for repression of terrorism etc. “bills strengthened by guaranteed emergency.” executive absorbs legislature. transformation well-known to jurists and politicians but unnoticed by citizens.
      • England: called martial law but still SoE
      • WWI: Defence of the Realm Act (DORA) and others allow for limitations of citizen rights. 1920 Emergency Powers Act
      • US: dialectic of powers of president and Congress
      • Article 1 of constitution says habeas corpus suspendable for rebellion or invasion, but not who gets to do it. also conflicting: Article 1 says declaring war/raising and supporting army and navy is Congressional power, Article 2 says Pres is commander in chief
      • Civil War, Lincoln ignores Article 1 to raise army. “commissarial dictatorship” for ten weeks
      • justified to congress by saying necessity outweighs legality
      • congress can do nothing but ratify his actions. so he proclaims emancipation on his own authority and generalizes SoE
      • WWI: Woodrow Wilson assumes broader powers but always gets congress to delegate them. Espionage Act, Overman Act
      • C20, war metaphor becomes part of presidential political vocab. so FDR uses it for Great Depression
      • New Deal was accomplished by delegating special powers to Pres
      • WWII: “limited” then unlimited national emergency. civil rights violations, most prominently interment of Japanese-Americans
      • hence Bush after 9/11 always calling himself “Commander in Chief of the Army”
   8. legal tradition differences correspond to scholarship division: those who include SoE in juridical order sphere vs those who consider it political and extrajuridical a. topographical inside vs outside insufficient to account for this b. in fact, SoE is neither inside nor outside. it is threshold
   9. necessity repeatedly posited as foundation of SoE a. necessitas legem non habet formulated by Gratian. justifies single, specific case of transgression b. Thomas, Summa theologica: sovereign granting dispensations from law, but if you can’t access sovereign, what else can you do c. necessity is not source of law nor its suspender but releases particular case d. aleph: medieval opening of juridical order to outside by saying if the transgression has already happened you can choose not to punish e. aleph: idea of suspension of law necessary for common good is foreign to medievals: see Dante
   10. only with moderns does state of necessity get included within juridical order a. Santi Romano between wars: both usual views on SoE are wrong. necessity is true source of law beyond law b. (for Romano) qua necessity, SoE is like revolution and establishment of constitution: “illegal” but “juridical and constitutional” measure realized in production of new norms c. by 1944, he returns to issue: says even tho “antijuridical” with regard to previous law, revolution establishes new law thru action d. in both SoE and revolution, SoN is ambiguous zone where extra-/antijuridical happenings pass into law, norms blur wiht fact e. hence aporias definers of necessity can’t resolve: if necessary measure is already norm and not just fact, why is ratification necessary? if only fact, why do its legal effects begin immediately and not when converted to law? retroactivity is a fiction f. the extreme aporia is that the “objectivity” of necessity is groundless g. hence reducing SoE to SoN only makes things worse h. aleph: Schmitt kinda follows Romano. SoE reveals irreducible difference of state and law
   11. some say judge in SoN is just like filling in juridical lacunae in normal times: ley may have holes, but derecho does not; judges are required to rule even when the written law doesn’t tell them how a. but this is not lacuna within law. it is fictitious lacuna. fracture in derecho between position and application of norm, filled by zone where application is suspended by ley remains in force (so opposite?)

2. 2. Force-of-Law

   1. Schmitt theorizes SoE in Dictatorship and Political Theology a. Schmitt describes SoE in context of dictatorship, then distinguishes commissarial vs sovereign dictatorship. then in PolTheo, epmhasis shifts from SoE to sovereignty b. aim in both: inscribe SoE in juridical context. says some order still exists juridically in SoE even if not a juridical order c. he makes possible articulation between SoE and juridical order d. (Dictatorship) commissarial: norms of realization of law, not norms of law. sovereign: contituent power, not constituted power. commissarial subsumed in distinction between norms and rules for realizing it e. sovereign dictatorship aims to create situation for imposition of new constitution. [this distinction of amorphous constituent power and ossified constituting power feels like “retreat to the body without organs.”] constituent power is not mere force but a juridically formless power preceeding and connected to every constitution f. commissarial/sovereign distinction main goal of book. but both Leninist DotP and Weimar SoE creep are not commissarial. more extreme and threaten consistency of juridico-political order g. PolTheo: SOE inscribed within jur order thru distinction of norm and decision. norm suspended, decision revealed h. PolTheo sovereign is outside jur order yet belongs to it. decides whether constitution suspended entirely i. outside but belonging is topology of SoE. “ecstasy-belonging” of sovereign j. aleph: Schmitt’s idea of sovereignty (PolTheo) derives from idea of SoE (Dict) not vice versa
   2. Schmitt SoE theory makes caesurae, divisions with ends that don’t meet but allow functioning of law machine a. in commdict, law is not applied but remains in force. in sovdict, law is applied, but not in force b. norm not derivable from decision, and norm suspended in SoE decision, but SoE makes application of norm possible c. so: Schmitt SoE is where norm/normrealization opposition reaches greatest intensity d. aleph: language/law analogy. separation of praxis from its concrete exercise. excess of signification over denotation. floating signifier corresponds to SoE
   3. 1989 Derrida “force of law” lecture a. phrase force of law has tradition in Roman, medieval law. force as efficacy. modern: force = untouchability of law separate from efficacy b. but in both, force of law refers not to laws but executive decrees that have its “force” c. in extreme situations “force of law” floats around to be claimed by state authority (commdict) or revolutionary org (sovdict). SoE is force of law without law, force-of-law
   4. concept of “application” led astray by Kant reducing it to logical proposition (a judgement that X case is subsumed under a norm) a. ling analogy again: passage from general to particular entails not only logical subsumption but movement of virtual to concrete. practical (not logical) langue to parole and semiotic to semantic. juridical norm’s concrete case is the trial, backed up by institutional power b. 2 points: ling interp requires an effective operation, and application of norm is not contained in/derivable from norm. c. SoE opens space revealing separation of application and norm. force-of-law dis/applies a norm with suspended application.

3. 3. Iustitium

   1. Roman iustitium is paradigmatic SoE a. when Republic endangered, Senate issues final decree declaring emergency tumultus and calling on consuls/etc. to defend state b. iustitium = standstill of law like sun in solstice. c. aleph: tumult is not war per se but disorder arising from it
   2. Roman scholars don’t like reconstruction of SoE theory a. Mommsen compares to acquiring self-defense right when community protection fails b. has difficulty presenting it theoretically and handles it weirdly. “quasi-dictatorship” wrong because the floating imperium invests every citizen c. identifies as SoE from SoN d. private citizen Scipio Nasica kills Tiberius Gracchus to defend state when consul won’t e. almost formulates SoE theory
   3. Adolph Nissen, Das Iustitum (1877): iustitium puts aside restrictions like against putting to death citizen a. consultum presupposes tumultus, tumultus is sole cause of iustitium b. aleph: adjective ultimus important. absolutely beyond/most extreme. senate is at extreme outer edge. of? of juridical order c. aleph: Middell (1887) misses the point
   4. pinning down iustitium a. not like dictatorship: dictator a type of magistrate. this is not investing of power but removal of restriction b. SoE/dictatorship confusion is where Schmitt, Rossiter, Friedrich stumble (self-servingly). SoE is not pleromatic fullness of law, but kenomatic emptiness c. aleph: modern public law theory “dictatorship = totalitarian state from WWI crisis of democracies” is wrong: Hitelr and Mussolini were legitimate, maintained existing structure, but built “dual state” with unformalized SoE-based secondary structure d. aleph: Schmitt familiar with iustitium
   5. [space of city under this strange suncite:samuelr.delany5843] is hard for ancients+moderns to comprehend. what is human praxis in juridical void? a. can’t clearly define legal consequences of acts committed in this state to save res publica [is it a way for Agamben to ignore what actually happens, reducing it to “confusion at what they couldn’t handle?”] b. human actions not legislative or executive or transgressive acts. law not executed, broken, or created. law “inexecuted” [inesegue“unfollowed”?]
   6. summary
      1. SoE is not dictatorship but space devoid of law. cannot be annexed to law or put between norms and realization
      2. juridical order seemingly has to give itself a relation to this space, but can’t think it
      3. problem is nature of acts during iustitium
      4. force-of-law is a legal “/mana/” freed by suspension of law. law tries to appropriate it or assure a relationship at its own degree zero. SoE theory needs to define this

4. 4. Gigantomachy Concerning a Void

   1. Benjamin/Schmitt SoE “debate” a. Schmitt can be assumed to have read “Critique of Violence”: let’s read Schmitt sov theory as response to Benjamin ViCrit, reverse scandal
   2. ViCrit aims to ensure violence/power Gewalt outside+beyond law that can shatter lawmaking-lawpreserving violence dialectic: pure/divine/revolutionary violence. rev violence is total threat to law in its mere existence! a. Benjamin speaks of “decision”
   3. Benjamin ensures violence outside law, Schmitt sneakily leads it back in, tries to capture in SoE a. S/Dict->B/ViCrit->S/PolTheo, move and countermove. S/constituent/constituted power (= B/lawmaking/lawpreserving) replaced with S/concept of decision. Benjamin says undecideability [logical?], Schmitt says decision [voluntaristic solution?]
   4. Benjamin makes his baroque sovereign exclude, not decide (Schmitt) the SoE a. B: sov is responsible for making decision, yet incapable of deciding b. sov power/exercise thereof (B) :: law norms/law norms realization (S, Dict). PolTheo: decision, then B: norm vs realization. no decision can fill gap between power and exercise [kinda lost here] c. SoE is not miracle but catastrophe d. editors reversed meaning and confused things e. baroque “white eschatology” leads to empty sky not redeemed earth. makes baroque SoE catastrophe [need to read Benjamin lol]. B sov is God as creature among creatures, S sov is Cartesian(?) f. so SoE is interdeterminacy between anomie of law, catastrophe of creatres+jur order
   5. B 8th thesis on history: SoE is the rule. our task: make “real SoE” against fascism a. S has to keep exception and rule apart even if exception defines rule b. for S, machine can’t go on if exception and rule coincide. but this is what Third Reich created. proof: dual state without new constitution c. S divided real from fictitious SoE with fictitious regulated by law d. B reformulates: fictitious SoE has collapsed. law cannot be maintained in its suspension. there is only civil war, revolutionary violence, human action without relation to law
   6. stakes of debate: S wants to reinscribe violence (violence = human action) in law, B to free it from law a. analogous to metaphysical battle over pure being b. law and logos need anomic/alogical suspension to grab world of life. law capturing anomie, language capturing nonlinguistic c. so, then:?pure violence did not exist prior to law but is posited as prior to law by the “game” of law?
   7. what is “pure violence”? purity for B not absolute, always conditional a. purity does not belong to violent action in itself, but in relation to law and justice b. pure violence is not simply a means to an end. it is distinction as means without end c. problem is not identifying just end but finding different kind of violence with non-means relation to those ends d. purity of medium defined by relationship to juridical means. comparison: “violence in anger is not means but manifestation.”
   8. “scripture without key is not scripture but life”—??? force-of-law freed from law is just life as it is lived a. in Kafka. law that you tsudy but that doesn’t have force or application. why? b. what becomes of law in messianic fulfillment or society without classes? passage toward justice opened not by erasure of law but inoperativeness [turning off the power?] of law, another use of it. force-of-law that keeps it working while suspended tries to prevent this c. humanity will play with law just like children with junk. use value that instead of preceding the law is born after it. [this honestly just sounds like “performativity of gender signifiers” type stuff that overemphasizes the freedom in there. what is there to do with a law if not follow it nor not follow it?]

5. 5. Feast, Mourning, Anomie

   1. how did iustitium become a term for public mourning of sovereign/close relative? a. Versnel (1980): mourning and political crisis feel like the same loss of structure b. just pushes things on to a posited psychologism c. aleph: Durkheim, Suicide (1897) did the same thing with “anomic suicide.” postulates requirement of Order, link between anomie and anxiety
   2. Seston (1962): loss of man is merely dramatized as loss of whole order a. still not enough b. Suetonius describing death of Augustus. the “tumult” is the death of the sovereign. the sovereign has arrogated all exceptional powers, a living iustitium. things set free on death
   3. neo-Pythagoreans make sovereign “living law” a. living law is not bound by law. law coincides with anomie [this all seems like the “carving out of rationality from irrationality” Deleuze describes. consistency can only be established by concentrating the inconsistency. the machine that chugs along generating/mutating the structure, the read-head of the Turing machine] b. death of sovereign means anarchy escapes. have to transform it into public mourning and that into iustitium c. aleph: Pseudo-Archytas, On Law and Justice separates sovereign basileus from the law-obeying magistrate arkhōn. living law nomos empuskhos is superior to written law gramma
   4. misrule feasts where the illicit becomes licit and roles are reversed a. Karl Meuli connects them to Germanic Friedlosigkeit, English persecution of /wargus/—popular justice, harrassment to exile the banned b. “legal anarchy” parodies anomie within law c. feasts are mournful and mourning is festive, so law and anomie are distanced yet close[?] d. once again: what is this relation of law to life

6. 6. Auctoritas and Potestas

   1. foundation of senate powerto proclaim iustitium? not imperium or potestas but auctoritas a. hard to define auctoritas in contrast to potestas now b. Schmitt laments confusion of authority with dictatorship c. Jesus Fueyo also notes confusion of auctoritas and potestas d. aleph: auctoritas can’t be translated once and for all but it is not impenetrably roman-bound
   2. auctoritas concerns both private and public law a. private: auctoritas belongs to auctor, i.e. paterfamilias, who says “auctor fio” to give legal validity to act by one who cannot act with validity themself (son’s marriage) b. derives from verb augeo, to augment or perfect an act c. not about representation
   3. in public law, it belongs to senate. acts only in concert with magistrate a. def not the same as potestas or imperium b. aleph: public or private, it’s about the relation between augmentation and act augmented
   4. in iustitium, consuls reduced to private citizens but all citizens as if invested with imperium. augmentation is power that suspends or reactivates law but is not formally in force as law a. interregnum is similar
   5. also hostis iudicatio, i.e. citizen threatening security of Republic. auctoritas strips of citizen status a. auctoritas appears in purest form when invalidated by magistrate potestas, living as pure writing. it is what remains of law if law is suspended wholly (“not law but life”)
   6. Augustus grounds princeps status in auctoritas principis a. boring philological history
   7. name Augustus has same root as augeo, auctor a. defines himself as auctor of highest standing. conceives restoring Republic as transferring res publica from him to people+Senate b. principate is form of authoritas c. Augustus made all of his house public. embodies auctoritas d. aleph: the king’s two bodies should be about auctoritas not dying (“dignitas” not most best word) a. fascist Duce and Nazi Führer were derived from biopolitical auctoritas not legal potestas
   8. inherence of authority in living person is sheer ideology but modern scholars love to uphold it a. Pietro De Francisci b. guys like that apparently unaware that this kind of power derives from SoE, neutralizing law c. they act like authoritarian-charismatic power springs magically from Führer
   9. conclusions: western juridical system has double structure of normative+juridical element (potestas) and anomic+metajuridical element (auctoritas) a. normative needs anomic to be applied, but anomic can assert itself only by validating or suspending normative. [isn’t this just the structure of “sense” as Deleuze says??cite:gillesdeleuze5294 target of the polemic thinks propositions (actions) are fundamentally about being true/false (legal/illegal), when actually both options depend on a more fundamental structure determining whether that dichotomy is even in force, sense/nonsense (validation/suspension of law), where sense (law in force) actually depends on nonsense (SoE). that more fundamental structure has to have a weirder organization, or else it would just demand yet another layer of “metalinguistic validation”—hence sense being built from nonsense]
   10. secret of “ark” of power is SoE, empty space, human action with no relation to law + norm with no relation to life [related non-relatedness is a kind of arrogation or “binding”—is that what we call quasi-causation?] a. machine still effective. normative aspect of law can be contradicted by govt violence that claims to be applying it b. goal is not to bring SoE back into boundaries and reaffirm norms+rights grounded in it, but to break link between law and life
   11. still there is not some immediate access to pre-fractured thing to be found somewhere: “Bare life is a product of the machine and not something that preexists it…” a. showing law and life as non-related makes space between them for human action: “politics,” which has been eclipsed because contaminated by law, reduced to either constituent or constituting power. true political action severs violence and law. also makes possible “use of law after the deactivation of the device,” “pure” law.

Acephalous

• this Kojève stuff seems almost prototypical, doesn’t it? “the end of history is when Man emerges from the great saga of intentional action to find repose in one-ness with nature, subject and object together. very nice. why was it necessary to go through all that?

Umwelt

• Umwelt as closed unities of environment which are dependent on arrangement of sense organs: compare to Zhuangzi on how organs define world.

PART ONE: We "Other Victorians"

• repression supposedly denies the existence of what it hides
• so we supposedly need to let things out
• free early C17 → Victorian repression
• speaking about sex thought of as being subversive revolt
• sex as support of preaching
• not “why are we repressed” but “why do we say we are repressed’
• not interested in the fact but the fact behind the speech of the maybe-fact

PART TWO: The Repressive Hypothesis

1. 1. The Incitement to Discourse

   • muteness not even referring to what it bans, supposedly
   • but all the allusion and metaphor and expurgation of vocabulary does not change that their was a proliferation of discourses of sex
   • don’t have to tell specific crude details of sex positions in confession but are meant to correlate all your desires and looks and pleasures in a broad domain

2. 2. The Perverse Implantation

   • rules of marriage previously far more worked out than vagueness of sodomy

PART THREE: Scientia Sexualis

• 2 great historical procedures for producing truth of sex
  • “ars erotica” transmitted esoterically / learned experientially
  • “scientia sexualis” opposed to initiations
• confession is seen everywhere in western societies
• sex as “hidden” is only back-projected from its creation as something to be confessed

INTRODUCTION

• Martin Heidegger, “Die Frage Nach der Technik” (1953)
  • received well in east by Kyoto School and Doaist critique of technical rationality
  • Heidegger fits alienation fear of Sartrean existential humanism, Chinese rapid industrial transformation
  • decline of west ⇒ affirmation of east
  • but (outside postcolonial theory) prevents original thinking on technology in east. accepts there being one kind of tehcnics/technology, anthropologically universal (vs local thinking)
  • aside: technics = general category, making and practice. technē = Greek conception, poeisis/bringing-forth for Heideger. technology = radical turn in European modernity leading to Gestell for Heidegger
  • international technology to be overcome by local thinking
  • what is the question concerning technology for non-euros before modernization, if it’s not that of Greek technē?

1. §1 The Becoming of Prometheus

   • technics are universal of Homo faber, cultural specificities of it come later, per Leroi-Gourhan: technical tendency vs technical fact
   • hypothesis: in China, technics in current, euro-filosoof sense never existed
   • have to consider alongside cosmology, metaphysics
   • philosophy opposes mythology but mythology is the origin from which it can’t completely detach itself
   • “Prometheanism” requires Prometheus, who invents technics, before which human beings were not sensible beings
   • in China, 3 sage emperors create humans and stuff for them
     • Fuxi 伏羲 creates bagwa trigrams
     • Nüwa 女蜗 makes humans from clay
     • Shennong 神農 (also called Yan Di 炎帝, Lie Shan Shi 烈山氏) is “divine farmer,” god of fire, after death god of kitchen. invents agriculture, medicine, other technics. see Huainanzi
       • risks poisoning himself to determine which plants edible vs poisonous
     • rather than Titan revolting against gods and raising humans above animals, there is no rebellion or transcendence, just benevolence of sages
     • example of Chinese cosmotechnics: Chinese medicine, using same principles and terms as cosmology. yin-yang, wu xing, harmony, etc. describing body

2. §2 Cosmos, Cosmology, and Cosmotechnics

   • limit of Leroi-Gourhan: does not ground in cosmology i guess
   • “Kantian antinomy” to resolve: technics is human universal (extension of somatic functions, externalization of memory) with differences explicable by factual influences // technics is not human universal, it has autonomy only within a cosmology
   • prelim. def. cosmotechnics: unification of cosmic and moral orders thru technical activities
     • overcome opposition between technics, nature. task of philosophy then seeking and affirming their organic unity
   • Simondon: magical phase continuous with science. Lévi-Strauss: discontinuity between (non-Euro) magic, (Euro) science
   • Philippe Descola’s four ontologies defined by relations between human and animal (respectively) interiority, physicality. animism (similar/dissimilar), totemism (similar/similar), naturalism (dissimilar/similar), analogism (dissimilar/dissimilar)
     • nature/culture antithesis only in naturalism
     • what can be said about nature can be said about technics (Descola calls it practice).
     • Ingold (drawing on Bateson) points to unity between practices and environment. proposes sentient ecology
   • senses understood through practices
   • a sense in Chinese cosmology other than vision/hearing/touch: Ganying 感 應, lit. feeling/response, often translated “correlative thinking.” Needham calls it “resonance”
     • yields moral sentiment, moral obligation: not product of subjective contemplation but resonance between Heaven and human, Heaven as ground of moral
     • implies homogeneity in all beings. implies organicity of relation between part and part, part and whole.
     • eight trigrams created by Bao-xi/Fuxi show these homogeneities
   • cosmotechnics will be helpful for analysis (see Confucian role of produced vessels for rituals)
     • does not mean defending cultural purity. absolute origin called into question by technics as cross-ethnic communication
     • but does require radical alterity, different Foucauldian epistemes
       • Foucault transitioned to talking about dispositifs, episteme as “strategic /dispositif/” which allows selecting which enunciations are acceptable to judge true or false
       • Hui reformulates: an episteme is a dispositif which faced with modern technology can be reinvented on basis of traditional metaphysical categories to reintroduce a form of life and reactivate a locality
         • can be seen following crises following each epoch in China. decline of Zhou, introduction of Buddhism, defeat in Opium Wars, etc.
   • China has tried to keep (“Cartesian”) separation in thinking from imported technology but technology has subverted dualism

3. §3 Technological Rupture and Metaphysical Unity

   • have to move beyond historical/social/economic levels to reconstitute metaphysical unity
   • not political/cultural identity but practice+theory unity, form of life that maintains coherence of a community
   • China has no equivalents to technē and physis so technology creates rupture in theory/practice (rupture in west as well ofc)
   • technology question = motivation to take up Being question, create new metaphysics/cosmotechnics
   • unification/indifference is not quest for ground but Urgrund (open to alterities)/Ungrund (resists assimilation)
   • answering tech ¿? means describing transofrmation of category qi 器 in relation to dao 道
     • qi enlightens dao/qi carries dao/qi in service of dao/dao in service of qi
     • superificial, reductive materialism separated qi and dao, broke down traditional system
   • Needham’s ¿?: why did modern science+technology not emerge in China. answers from Needham, Feng Youlan, Mou Zongsan
   • Chinese philo speculates on noumenon. Mou says an interface has to be reconstructed between noumenal and phenomenal ontologies. can only come from Chinese tradition itself (task of New Confucianism)
     • Mou’s proposal is idealist because it considers xin 心/noumenal subject as ultimate possibility. part 2 critiques it, says go back to technical objects themselves

4. §4 Modernity, Modernisation, and Technicity

   • Bernard Stiegler, Technics and Time: reformulation of occiphilohist
     • time has never been a real question for sinophilo
     • relation between technics and anamnesis, starting in Meno, center of soul-economy: search for truth is act of remembering. slave uses technical tools (drawing in sand) to solve geometry
     • in east, calendrical devices (though similar) based on different interpretation of time
       • Mou Zongsan attributes to daoism+buddhism. synthetic approach to comprehending reason vs occidental analytic one
       • in eastern, noumenal experience, there is no time (or historicity)
   • Keiji Nishitani of Kyoto School (studied under Heidegger)
     • says oriphilo did not take time concept seriously
     • technology, Nietzsche, Heidegger open path toward “nihility”
     • buddhist emptiness śûnyatā transcends nihility and time loses all meaning
     • (world) historicity (Welt)Geschichtlichkeit not possible without retentional system (which is technics per Stiegler)
     • not possible to be conscious of Dasein-historicity relation without being conscious of Dasein-technicity relation: historical consciousness demands technical consciousness
   • modernity functions according to technological unconcsiousness, frogetting of limits
   • modernity ends with rise of technlgcl consciousness: conscious of power of technlg, consciousness of technlgcl condition of human
     • need to articulate question of time+history with question of technics. open new terrain. explore thinking bridging noumenal+phenomenal ontologies
   • imposing western view? “not necessarily.” technics as medium for 2 ontologies

PART 1: IN SEARCH OF TECHNOLOGICAL THOUGHT IN CHINA

1. §7 Dao and Cosmos: The Principle of the Moral

   • four elements determining technology in China: timing, energy, materials, skillful technique (the last controllable but conditioned)
   • Aristotelian four causes: formal, material, efficient, final
   • Chinese concept of technics realizing moral good of cosmos vs Heidegger’s interpretation of Aristotelian technics revealing truth (alētheia), unconcealment of Being
   • occiphilo as philo of nature vs sinophilo as philo of moral life
   • daoist philo of nature comparable to Kant, Schelling, other early Romantics: thinking of organic form

2. §8 Techne as Violence

   • dikē (usually translated “justice”) = “fit” for Heidegger
   • geometry foundational to technics and justice
   • “fittingness…revealed only in the confrontation between the overwhelming of Being and the violence of /technē/”

3. §10 Dao and Qi: Virtue Contra Freedom

   • technē used to conquer what defeats us in physis, tychē (chance)
   • Plato seeks a technē of justice (dikē, dikaiosynē): technique of technai
   • technē vs technēmata in Phaedrus: latter is just techniques (doctor who makes insignificant or negative changes), former aims for the good (doctor who can cure)
   • difference between technē and aretē?
     • Vernant, following the Charmides: technē as poeisis has product (ergon), praxis is end in itself
     • but sophists have technē not of production (poiētikē) but acquisition (ktētikē)
     • technē also opposed to empeiria (experience), said to be subject to illusion, error
     • poetry is not technē because a good poet is not the real author but channel for divine
     • common point in technai vs non-technics: objective of technē is to master tychē, guarantee order
     • in Plato, 3 relations
       • technē as analogous to aretē
       • aretē as aim of technē
       • aretē as technē
     • in Aristotle? (didn’t grasp this part)
   • Heidegger says Parmenides/Heraclitus/Anaximander are inceptual anfänglicher thinkers, thinking beginning, not presence, no clear distinction between Being, beings
   • Plato and Aristotle: pre-metaphysics to metaphysics. completed in Hegel, Nietzsche. leads to Gestell as essence of modern technology. productionist metaphysics
   • ontotheology asks: what are beings as such? what is the highest being?
     • Idea of the Good in Plato. makes intelligible things so, provides truth/disclosure, signifies determination of essence ousia by subsuming many to one
   • things different in China, ofc. no ontotheology, no productionist metaphysics (or not this history?)
   • qi 器 actually 3 words not clearly distinguished in everyday language
     • ji 機: that which controls the trigger
     • qi 器: containers being guarded by dogs
     • xie 械: shackle, also called qi, meaning holding; one says that which contains is xie, and that which cannot contain is qi
   • jī qì 機器 and jī xiè 機械 interchangeably designate machines
   • Xi Ci commentary on I Ching says what is formless/above form (xing er shang, used to translate “metaphysical.” xing er shang xue = metaphysics) is dao, what has form/is below form is qi
   • dao is above form and phenomenon, gives them, as superior being. but not laws of nature, rather is ungraspable
   • qi is container, carrier, but not only physical: also specificity, generosity
     • Analects: junzi bu qi 君子不器 “the gentleman is not a utensil” (not limited to specific purpose) (generosity is unbounded)
   • qi is bounded, finite being that emerges according to infinite dao
   • qi and dao inseparable. dao needs qi to carry it to be manifested sensibly, qi needs dao to become perfect (daoism)/sacred (confucianism)

4. §10.1 Qi and Dao in Daoism: Pao Ding's Knife

   • perfection in the “technical” ability of butchery comes not through the tool-domain (qi) but through dao, being able to refrain from qi-ness. guided by dao the knife goes between bones
   • “privation” of technical (sharp blade) and social (culinary use) determinations of function means it does not use built-in features but gets new usage to realize its potential as being sharp
   • 2 parts to knowledge of living: understanding general principle of life, becoming free from functional determination
   • dao is not only principle of being but freedom to be. dao may not lead technics to perfection but be sub- or perverted by technics
     • Zigong in Zhuangzi finding old man who rejects machinery for carrying water
     • machines → machine heart (ji xin)/calculating mind
   • Socrates in Phaedrus: 2 forms of systematic art. collecting scattered things into one kind, and cutting a kind up into species along natural joints like a butcher
     • emphasizes need to know nature of things. Zhuangzi instead concerned with way of living, not confronting the hard and extreme (such as by pursuing infinite knowledge). butchering is not a mere matter of knowing anatomy
   • Plato says Socrates says Egyptian king Thamus says: writing facilitates forgetting, not memory
     • source for Derrida’s pharmacology argument (technics is poison and remedy) and hence Stiegler’s political programme
   • Thamus critique of technics vs Zhuangzi warning
     • Plato: thru reading, one can know many things without grasping their truth (read about swimming without being able to swim). recollection/anamnesis as condition of truth: writing short-circuits anamnesis
     • Zhuangzi: refuse any calculation deviating from dao, not to affirm reality or truth, but to reaffirm freedom

5. §10.2 Qi and Dao in Confucianism: Restoring the Li

   • different understanding of qi
   • qi often refers to ritual /li/禮 instruments
     • right side of character is either qi or pictogram for jade instruments
   • Confucius trying to restore li. “naïve” C20 materialist reading: restoring feudalism. hence Confucianism = regression, obstacle to communism
   • li defines power hierarchy indicated by artificial objects li qi 禮器, number of sacrifices performed during rites
     • during Zhou, li qi referred to qi with different functions. jade+bronze qi indicated identity, rank. but also refers to spirit/“content” inseparable from formal aspect: cultivation/practice nurturing moral sensibility
   • in the Li Ji 禮記 Book of Rites, Confucius says li necessary for maintaining the moral = relation to the heaven
   • “for Confucianism, Qi functions to stabilise and restore the moral cosmology through ritual”
   • filosoof Li Zehou (1930–) says a certain ritual is traceable back to Xia/Shang/Zhou: during Zhou, emperor formalized shamanic rites into li, hence name Zhou Li. Confucius tried to restore Zhou Li to resist political/social corruption, “spiritualized” it, then “philosophised” by Sung, Ming Neo-Confucianism. but spirit of rites preserved
   • despite li/shamanism link, emergence of daoism, mohism at same time as confucianism indicates rationalizing break with shamanism
   • confucian neisheng waiwang 内聖外王 (inner sageliness, outer kingliness) to keep li content being overshadowed by form
   • qi in confucianism has use in formal setting, but only for preserving moral heavenly order, cultivating great personality—formal for maintaining formless. in daoism qi not instrumental; dao reachable by being natural or zi ran
   • dao is metaphysical because formless. metaphysical is non-technical, non-geometrical
   • Mou Zongsan: confucianism = moral metaphysics (“what” questions: what is sage/wisdom/benevolence/rightfulness), daoism = practical ontology (how do we achieve them?)
   • daoism refuses efficiency to prepare for opening. resonates with Heidegger Gelassenheit as exodus from tech

6. §10.3 Remarks on Stoic and Daoist Cosmotechnics

   • stoics and daoists say live according to nature (physis/zi ran) and take technical objects as means to superior end (eudaimonia/xiao yao 逍遙 free and easy/also confucian tan dang 坦蕩 magnanimity) but stoics affirm rationality and daoists denigrate it
   • John Sellars: Aristotle emphasizes logos in Socrates while Stoics emphasize ruling oneself in Socrates
   • Stoics influenced by aristotelian eudaimonia but for him it involves external good, for them only ethical virtue
   • how do the Stoics pass from physis to the moral?
     • in Cicero: contemplating heavenly bodies → knowledge of gods → piety, justice, etc. → life of happiness resembling the divine
     • mediation of realms is core of Stoic “oikeiosis”
     • Julia Annas/Mou Zongsan vs Gábor Betegh/Dong Zhongshu: Stoic/Daoist ethics are not vs are intimately connected to their theory of external things. Yuk Hui takes latter position because “it is being-in-the-world that is the condition of ethical thought,” but this does seem arguable from outside
   • Stoic virtue is an art/skill technē
   • Stoicism vs Daoism on living in agreement with nature
     • cosmology. Stoics: cosmos as organism. Daoists: universe not presented as animal but guided by dao, modeled on zi ran
     • divinization. Stoics: cosmos related to divine qua lawgiver. lawgiver not in Chinese thinking
     • eudaimonia. Stoics value rationality, humans play specific role thanks to it. dao is in all beings, freedom achieved thru wu wei
     • rationality. Stoics: to live with nature is to develop rationality. Daoists: restoring spontaneous aptitude
   • Foucault, “Technology of the Self”: Stoics have self-technics like letters to friends, disclosure of self, examination of self/conscience, askēsis of remembering (not discovering) truth
     • 2 forms of techniques. meletē: meditation, using imagination to cope. gynasia: bodily exercise. how are these grounded in understanding of virtue revealed by cosmic nature?
     • integration into early Christian doctrine brought transformation. knowing yourself goes from taking care of self to disclosure of self as sinner. exomologēsis operates by showing shame, humility, modesty, publicly. exogoreusis goes by obedience + contemplation, so self-examination → recognition of God
   • transformation in daoism (meditation, martial arts, sexual practices, alchemy, etc.): daoist teaching dao jia to religion dao jiao. but “essence of the thought” remains intact. absorbed Confucian understanding of heaven/human resonance

7. §11 Qi-Dao as Resistance: The Gu Wen Movement in the Tang Period

   • Wei Jin dynasty (220–420CE) interesting because it was when buddhism came to China
   • (as is the period following the 1840s, with modernization)
   • unification of qi and dao reaffirmed against external threats (buddhism, western culture)
   • also: decline of Zhou
   • Tang (618–709) buddhism and confucian anti-buddhism
   • Gu Wen movement 古文運動 (“ancient writing”): resistance against buddhist+daoist superstition, effort to reestablish confucian values (qi+dao unity) by reasserting writing
     • writing should enlighten dao, not focus on style/form
     • Wei Jin writing: flamboyant Pin Wen “parallel writing”
     • Gu Wen leaders Han and Liu: Pin Wen deviates from dao, is superficial
     • writing enlightens dao 文以明道: writing has role of specific qi able to reconnect qi and dao
   • put confucianism at chinese culture’s center = zhong 中
     • can’t recover pure original teaching because dao not static
     • confucian Zhong Yong 中庸 “Doctrine of the Mean”: don’t lean to any extreme
     • buddhist Nāgārjuna’s Zhong Guan 中觀 concept: kong 空 “void” is permanent, authentic form of existence
     • Han Yu leans toward first, Liu Zongyuan second (more buddhism-sympathetic)
   • Han Yu’s idea of dao meant bringing back feudalism. brought criticism in Qing dynasty (1644–1912)
   • Liu Zongyuan separates supernatural and natural, superstitious and spiritual. no transcendence or first cause necessary: formation of world found in world (similar to later, Sung Neo-Confucianism)
     • yuan qi 元氣 as primary element is similar to neoconf ch’i theory 氣論

8. §12 The Materialist Theory of Ch'i in Early Neo-Confucianism

   • underlying ch’i theory is a monism furnishing foundation for coherence between cosmology and the moral
   • 2 schools besides ch’i: li 理 “reason” and xin 心 heart-mind, but don’t involve technics
   • technics in relation to metaphysics only becomes more visible in thought of Song Yingxing (1587–1666)

9. §13 Qi-Dao in Song Yingxing's Encyclopaedia During the Ming Dynasty

   • Song dynasty (960–1279) had lots of technological development: navigational compass, gunpowder, movable type
   • Yuan dynasty/Mongolian Empire (1271–1368) increarsed east/west exchange
   • Song Yingxin lived in following Ming dynasty (1368–1644) when science, tech, aesthetic “scaled new heights”: first telescope, Zheng He sails to africa, Euclid’s geometry translated
   • c’est-à-dire his encyclopedia Tian Gong Kai Wu 天工開物 The Exploitation of the Works of Nature (1636) matched spirit of times
     • 18 sections giving techniques for agriculture, metallurgy, arms manufacture based on observations from his travel and research
     • tian = heaven = cosmological principles governing change/emergence of beings, obviously
     • almost 100 years before d’Alembert/Diderot encyclopédie (different context tho)
     • Song had a lowly govt position and wrote it while living in poverty
   • metaphysics centered on Zhang Zai’s work: ch’i monism
     • even the void consists of ch’i (contra buddhism and daoism)
   • Zhang Zai’s contemporaries said dao is beyond form and appearance and should be identified with li 理 reason/principle
     • Cheng brothers (Hao and Yin): what has form is ch’i, what is formless is dao
     • Zhangzai’s ch’i, Chengs’ li adopted into Zhu Xi (1130–1200) where ch’i = qi, li is beyond form
   • issue of position of ch’i still not resolved for Mou Zongsan (1909–1995)
     • says for Zhang Zai, tai he means qi + tai xu (great void), which is shen (spirit)
     • li are not sufficient to set ch’i into movement: need primary mover. resides in xin, shen, qing (emotion 个青)
     • how do ch’i, li, xin (whichever is basic…) drive being into movement? Mou says kantianly condition of possibility of experience, existence and experience correlated
   • Zhang Dainian (1909–2004): Zhang Zai is C11 materialist
   • Yuk Hui disagrees with both Mou Zongsan (qi = primary mover) and Zhang Dainian (materialist)
     • “not just matter or spirit”
     • relational materialism not substantialist materialism
   • ch’i monism developed into elements, Wu Xing (5 movements)
   • human intervention (hence qi) necessary to effect combinations of elements
   • questioned theory of resonance but still confirmed unity of cosmos and moral

10. §14 Zhang Xuecheng and the Historicisation of Dao

    • Zhang Xuecheng (1738–1801): dao is not timeless but theorized according to particular contexts
    • different from e.g. confucian Dai Zhen (1724–1777) who criticized neoconfs on grounds of what old texts actually said
    • the six classics are qi, not dao
    • dao needs qi as derridean supplement

11. §15 The Rupture of Qi and Dao after the Opium Wars

    • western technology brought unassimilable change in a way the influx of buddhism never did
    • “cartesian” approach: idea of retaining “fundamental principles” of chinese thought despite the importation of a foreign technics
    • after opium wars (1839–1842, 1856–1860) it was recognized impossible to win any war without developing “western” tech
    • self-strengthening movement (1861–1895) modernized military, industrialized production, reformed education
      • “learning from the west to overcome the west,” “chinese learning for fundamental principles and western learning for practical application”
    • Li Sanhu says: series of “translations.” qi and dao reversed so that qi was seen as prior to dao
    • qi resplaced with western technology to realize chinese dao
    • Wei Yuan wanted to use dao to solve social/political problems. criticized neoconfs
      • influenced by Zhang Xuecheng but extends qi from historical writings to artefacts. more radical materialist
    • qi becomes mere thing controlled and mastered by dao. dao/qi = mind/instrument
    • dao and qi replaced with western theory, western technology
      • hundred days’ reform after self-strengthening movement: intellectuals’ reaction to being defeated by japan in First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895)
    • qi in the service of dao becomes dao in the service of qi

12. §16 The Collapse of Qi-Dao

    • kids study in the west then come back as intellectuals

13. §16.2 The Manifesto for a China-Oriented Cultural Development, and Its Critics

    • “the question of technology was rarely mentioned as such” (merged into science and democracy)
      • wouldn’t it be easy (or facile?) to argue that Yuk Hui is just wrong to excavate this technology-question that isn’t there in the thing?

14. §17 Needham's Question

    • Feng Youlan: China has no science and no need of it; it’s prevented by chinese philosophy (reductionist)

15. §17.1 The Organic Mode of Thought and the Laws of Nature

    • Needham on why no science
      • social factors: mark of success was entering bureaucracy, tests determined what was worth studying
      • mechanical view lacking compared to organic, holistic view. Yuk Hui finds this “cosmotechnically determinative”
    • in west, radical separation between world of morality and lawless world of non-human
      • Francisco Suárez (1548–1617)

16. §18.2 The Self-Negation of Liangzhi in Mou Zongsan

    • inner sageliness → outer kingliness by way of a detour now, instead of directly. a detour that leads through science and technology, one that leads through qi

17. §19 The Dialectics of Nature and the End of Xing Er Shang Xue

    • Heidegger called Nietzsche the last metaphysician
      • but also beginning of cybernetics brings end of philosophy (Yuk Hui calls this general tendency from modern tech “dis-orientation”)
    • end of xing er shang xue comes with disassociation of dao and qi
    • in one sense china has no philo of tech just philo of nature + moral philo that can regulate use of tech knowledge
    • but euro philo of tech only started late C19 (tho technics-philo earlier)
    • dialectics of nature derived from engelsshit
    • Chen Changshu (1932–2011) renames dialectics of nature to philosophy of science and technology but retains basis
    • so marxist critique of technology is prominent but Yuk Hui thinks it’s discontinuous or incoherent. imports european understanding of tech
    • end of xing er shang xue, dis-orientation from which no metastability can be restored: general loss of direction + orient ceases to be orient
    • “totality” forming thru technical systems
      • accelerationism appeals to universalism but calls on culturally-specific promethean conception

PART 2: MODERNITY AND TECHNOLOGICAL CONSCIOUSNESS

1. §20 Geometry and Time

   • urge to “overcome modernity” has arisen in west, china but with different motives
     • C20 first europe then japan it ended up in war and metaphysical fascism
     • anthropologists talking about going back to indig ontologies or ancient cosmologies forget this
     • we need to reinvent cosmotechnics

2. §20.1 The Absence of Geometry in Ancient China

   • geometry and axiomatic thinking central to greek philosophy but lacking in china
   • greeks not strong in algebra though. miserable with curves
   • renaissance geometry driven by artistic creation
   • geometry vs intuition

3. §20.2 Geometrisation and Temporalisation

   • ideation vs idealization
   • relation between geometry, time, technics
     1. geometry demands+allows spatialization of time
     2. involves exteriorization+idealization thru technical means
     3. geometrical apodicticity allows logical inferences+mechanizing causal relations
     4. technical objects/systems made possible by mechanization participate in constitution of temporality (experience, history, historicity)
   • geometry as spatialization of time
     • expresses movement of time (linear form/cone section)
     • spatializes+exteriorizes time in a way that can be recollected in future in idealized form
     • lack of geometry + different conceptualization of time in china
   • chinese conceptualization of time
     • Granet, Jullien: ocassions/movements shi
     • they did have calendars and clocks!
     • sìshí 四時 four seasons, cyclical, 24 solar terms
     • for greeks: time goes from one moment to another
       • china only gets this in C19 after importing japanese between-moments jikan as shíjiān 時間
     • cosmos/universe as yu zou 宇宙 space-time. zou comes from wheel of wago, circular movement metaphor of time
   • association between shí 時 (season/occasion) and shì 勢 (propensity/situational thinking)
   • Meno shows technical exteriorization of memory in anamnesis, apodictic geometrical figure in sand. truth as recollection necessarily supplemented by technical dimension Plato does not talk about explicitly
     • Stiegler: “tertiary retention” (after Husserl’s prim/second-ary)
     • Stiegler following Derrida following Husserl: origin of geometry is generational communication, only possible while retaining apodicticity thru writing. [mathematization power]
     • Stiegler: technical objects are an epiphylogenetic memory, which is techno-logical memory residing in language, tools, goods-consumptions, rituals

4. §20.3 Geometry and Cosmological Specificity

   • “technology inscribes time”: an ontological+universal claim
   • Leroi-Gourhan’s theory of con-/di-vergence of technical inventions across milieus
     • technical tendency: universal tendency such as use of flint, invention of wheel
     • technical fact: particular expression of tendency conditioned by social-geographic milieu
   • saying memory-exteriorization=technical tendency does not explain why+how cultures do it with different paces+directions
   • Watsuji Tetsurō, Fūdo 風土. argues for climate determining culture
   • Laozi was a historian of the Zhou dynasty. interesting. but that just meant checking records to come up with advice, not historical consciousness as we know it

5. §21 Modernity and Technological Consciousness

   • technological unconsciousness/forgetting of technics, more fundamental than forgetting of Being
   • even Dasein trying to retrieve an authentic time depends on tertiary retention
   • rather than a lack of memory, hypomnesis, we can say there is an unconscious content to do with technical objects and that Stiegler’s Technics and Time is its analysis

6. §22 The Memory of Modernity

   • for Heidegger following Wilhelm Dilthey, past/memory is primordial. for Dilthey life is historical because
     • past insists in present because life is process of integrating past into present
     • present is building-up of past
     • past exists objectified as artefacts, events, etc.

7. §24 Overcoming Modernity

   If the failure of both of these projects [Mou Zongsan’s and that of the Kyoto School]…has anything to tell us, it is that, in order to overcome modernity, it is necessary to go back to the question of time and to open up a pluralism which allows a new world history to emerge, but one which is subordinated neither to global capitalism and nationalism, nor to an absolute metaphysical ground. This n e w world history is only possible by undertaking a metaphysical and historical project, rather than simply claiming the end of modernity, the end of metaphysics, the return to 'nature'— or, even less credibly, the arrival of the multitude.

Introduction

• four dominant materials in Chinese construction: wood, brick, stone, tile
• craftsmen common but no profession of “architect” traditionally
• government sponsored major buildings
• standardized system of modular construction meant craftsmen did not have to be literate and repairs were easy
• buildings differentiated by importance, not function. also material
• wood joinery key to cn architecture. interlocking network of pieces according to modular system
  • proportionality → earthquake-proofness
• wooden pieces divided into 3 layers
  • column network: pillars form perimeter. sometimes interior columns forming grid or concentric rectangle, but sometimes only a few
  • second layer, bracket set: joined to upper part of columns or beams crossing them
  • third, roof frame: supports rafters, roof tiles
• other components
  • base of nonrotting material. rammed earth (cheap), brick or maybe ceramic tile (humble), or expensive stone like marble (eminent). columns only rarely put directly in ground
• roof protects interior but is also decoration indicating rank
  • usually covered with ceramic tiles. glazing for importance. gold tiles and roof ridge ornaments for most important imperial+religious buildings
  • most important buildings usually have hipped roofs (slow slope without vertical sides). sometimes second or third set of eaves
• following chinese building style always a political statement
• 8 fundamental features of cn spatial arrangement
  1. horizontal axis. primary axis usually north-south, most important buildings positioned on it. spatial magnitude expressed by longer lines along horizontal planes, not vertically: exhibits land-wealth
  2. cn architecture is one-story and human-sized
     • exception is pagoda (import from India)
     • height of columns on front façade of Hall of Supreme Harmony: 8.43m
  3. courtyard
     • four-sided enclosure. south is cardinal direction. even if buildings are only on 3 sides, fourth face is implied
     • gōng plan common: most important buildings in capital-I formation. named for the character
  4. every complex has 1 focal structure, but no building stands isolated
  5. gates fundamental to any complex
     • freestanding or attached to walls. psychological+physical structure: mark boundary
  6. modularity: fraction proportions
  7. rank: aspect of both complexes and structures. position matters. private space and its architecture only visible to some
  8. siting/geomancy/fengshui: building site must be in accord with natural forces (mountains, water)
     • protective mountains or artificial hills behind, water source in front or running through

1. Genesis of Chinese Buildings and Cities

• walls survive better than buildings archaeologically and are assumed to indicate group settlement

1. Cities and Buildings before Written Records

   • can’t say how far back group settlement goes
   • walled settlements by people using stone implements, burying their dead go back to 6th millennium BCE
     • village in Li County, Hunan, on the Yangzi: earthen wall, 6 meters wide at base, narrowed to ~1.5 at top, ~200m east/west, 160m north/south. enclosed by ditch (prefiguring moats?)
     • Aohanqi, Inner Mongolia: ditch without wall remains, similar size settlement 6200–5400 BCE. residential buildings in rows
     • Wuyang county, Henan, North Central China: tons of stuff found at site from 7000–5400 BCE
     • Dadiwan, Gansu: semisubterranean communal dwellings from M5 BCE
       • 1km²+ size, several hundred residential foundations uncovered
       • one (Foundation 901) a rectangular space oriented 30 degrees northeast. circular fire pit for cooking, symmetrically positioned rooms on 3 sides. 2 pillars+pilasters
   • Dadiwan is of Neolithic Yangshao culture
     • another example: Banpo, Shaanxi, east of Xi’an. begun M5 BCE (still largely underground)
     • by M4 BCE, Banpo had at least 3 house sizes, 3 cemeteries, pottery workshop, animal pens
     • another: 50k(m²) site Jiangzhai, Lintong county, Shaanxi (completely excavated)
     • Zhengshou, Henan settlement, 3300–2800 BCE: circular wall, rammed earth made with wooden formwork
   • Hemudu, Yuyao county, Zhejiang: has wooden remains. Neolithic wood joinery interest. grew rice, pigs, water buffalo, dogs. bows, arrows, whistles, hunting and fishing, pottery vessels, bone and ivory carving
   • Hemudu demonstrates M3 BCE major change across China: huge increase in city size. creation of “great house” Dafangzi significantly larger than others
   • M3 BCE Longshan culture
     • Shimao, Shenmu county, Shaanxi: largest walled city of period so far
       • stone walls. huge gates. gates, towers mamian all made of pounded earth faced with stone
   • so: by 3k BCE, architecture+urbanism all over China. hangtu walled settlements, drainage canals, systematically arranged buildings. wooden pillars as primary support system

2. Cities and Buildings of the Bronze Age

   • Erlitou ofc. Yanshi county, Henan, on Luo River
   • 3 features found at Erlitou that would be present for next 4 millennia
     • complexes (palaces gong?) oriented toward south
     • pillar-supported structure divided into interior rooms near center, facing south inside larger enclosed courtyard
     • gate sits in south-enclosing arcade/wall
     • refer back to principles in introduction
   • ca. 1600 BCE walled cities built in Henan: Erligang culture
     • Zhengzhou site
       • 6,960 meter perimeter wall, 20–32m wide at base
       • 11 gaps probably gates
       • built with banzhu technique, earth rammed between wooden planks. sections ~3.8m high
       • 20+ palatial building foundations in north center, NE sectors of city, area ~800m e/w, 500m n/s
       • 2k(m²) foundation, 9 rooms for Dafangzi thing
     • Yanshi/Shixianggou city
       • ⅒ size of Zhengzhou
       • for defense?
     • Panlongcheng, Hubei
       • same wall technique as Zhengzhou. widest base thickness 45m, narrowest top 18m
       • yaokeng pits, additional to main tomb pits containing human/animal sacrifices
       • front-and-back-hall arrangement anticipating other important places like Forbidden City Back Halls
     • another example of that at Fucheng, Jiaozuo county, Henan
     • Anyang/Yinxu, ofc

3. Western Zhou to Warring States

   • Book of Odes Shijing says Feng, capital built by King Wen (1152–1056) of Western Zhou was walled
   • Fengchu building complex, Qishan, 32.5m e/w, 43.5m n/s
     • siheyuan 4-side enclosure. gong scheme of central hall, corridor, connecting causeway
   • early C8 BCE, King Ping moves capital to Luoyang and begins Eastern Zhou after being invaded from west by the Quanrong

2. Architecture of the First Emperor and His Predecessors

• after capital move: Spring and Autumn period
• cast iron appears ~C8 BCE. metal weaponry easier and cheaper, + iron agricultural implements
• bronze and jade tech become more sophisticated
• writings made directly about architecture and associated ceremonies

1. Rulers’ Cities

   • Wangcheng (ruler’s city) described in the Zhouli
     • square with 4 wall positions determined by measuring out from midpoint according to sun’s shadow. each wall size 9 li. (9: fullness and perfection. royalty)
     • thoroughfares cross from wall to opposite wall but central ones are blocked by ruler’s walled enclosure
     • palace faces south. markets behind, temple to ruler ancestors to east, altars to soil and 5 grains to west
   • gongcheng palace-city: designated walled palace area. found in almost every Zhou city where a ruler lived
   • Luoyi capital Wangcheng described in the Kaogongji
     • squarish, ~3k per side, moat around
     • other cities also seem to at least sorta follow the plan
   • second urban pattern of Eastern Zhou period
     • the Jin capital Jiang, in Shanxi
     • rectangular outer wall, 8.48km perimeter, moat outside
     • 1km² inner city in north center, sharing boundary with north outer wall
     • 1km+ street going from north wall thru inner city into outer city
   • third urban pattern (most common among capitals of large states)
     • multiple walls not concentric
     • adjacent enclosures positioned north and south, east and west, or at each other’s corners
     • example: Zhao state (flourished 403–222 BCE), Handan, southern Hubei
     • looks like cells
     • new walls and continuing growth when existing city conquered

2. Rulers’ Tombs

3. Architecture of China’s First Empire

   • 230–221, last 6 warring states fell to Prince Zheng of Qin. dynasty only lasted 15 years but building principles were older and outlasted it
   • traveling palace xinggong concept under First Emperor: multiple residences as decoys, keeping secret which the ruler was in
     • also used for inspection tours (would have long history)

3. Han Architecture

• post-Qin 400 years fairly simple politically
  • Former/Western Han (206 BCE–9 CE): Chang’an capital in west
    • Xin dynasty/Wang Mang interregnum (9–23)
  • Latter/Eastern Han (25–220): Luoyang capital in east
  • earliest period with 6 kinds of arch: city, palace, imperial ritual space, tomb, rock-carved structure, garden
• 3 kinds of images: relief sculpture (C02 funerary arch), freestanding pillars que, mingqi structures

1. Han Chang’an: The First Emperor’s Vision Realized

   • Han cheng Qinzhi Han inherited the Qin system: founding Han emperor Liu Bang (r. 206-195),

   1. Item

      1. Text

         {{c1::Liú Bāng 刘邦}} (r. {{c2::206–195}}) was the founding Han emperor, who made his capital at {{c3::Cháng’ān 长安 (northwest of Xi’an, Shaanxi)}}—said to implement the system of the overthrown Qin.

      2. Extra

   2. A City of Palaces

      1. Item

         1. Text

            The shape of Western Han Cháng’ān 长安 was {{c1::irregular, not square (as traditionally prescribed)}}. {{c2::More than other capitals before and since, ⅔}} of the city area inside the walls was taken up by it several palace complexes (5 inside, 1 outside).

         2. Extra

            

      2. Item

         1. Text

            Liú Bāng 刘邦 aspired for his main palace, {{c1::Weiyang Palace 未央宫 wèiyāng gōng}}, to be more grandiose than anything built by his Qin predecessors, according to the Records of the Grand Historian. It is part of the sequence of palatial architecture with a {{c2::north-south axial line}} that includes Shang period complexes like Panlongcheng and eventually the Forbidden City.

         2. Extra

            Completed under his successor, there were forty-three halls, thirteen ponds or pools, six hills, some of them presumably artificial, and ninety-five gates.

            

      3. Item

         1. Text

            The emperor {{c1::Hàn Wǔdì 汉武帝 (r. 141–87 BCE)}} constructed {{c2::Gui Palace 桂宫 guìgōng}} at Cháng’ān.

         2. Extra

      4. Item

         1. Text

            The {{c1::“platform kiosk” 台榭 tai2xie4}} building method used at Han Chang’an appears to refer to {{c2::a timber-frame structure elevated on a tall platform with an earthen core.}}

         2. Extra

            

   3. Imperial Tombs

      1. Item

         1. Text

            Western Han imperial tombs had four parts: {{c1::mounds (for emperor+empress), in a “funerary precinct” 陵園 lingyuan, a walled “funearary city” 陵邑 lingyi for construction workers and caretakers to live, and auxiliary tombs}}. Sacrificial burial had been terminated.

         2. Extra

            Changling, Liu Bang’s (d. 195 BCE) tomb complex, was hub of all subsequent W Han imperial burials, and positioning of later ones seemed to follow the Zhou zhaomu organizational principle.

      2. Item

         1. Text

            Han Wudi gave special burial position near his own to, and erected the statue Horse Trampling the Barbarian in honor of, {{c1::the famed young military officer Huo Qubing, known for victories in the Northwest}}.

         2. Extra

            3.5. Horse Trampling the Barbarian, tomb of Huo Qubing (d. 117 BCE), Maoling, Xi’an, Shaanxi

            

   4. Ritual Architecture

      1. Item

         1. Text

            The “Numinous Hall” 明堂 mingtang ritual structure excavated from Han period Chang’an was meant to {{c1::imitate the structure of the cosmos in its configuration of rooms}}.

         2. Extra

2. Han Luoyang and Other Cities: Realistic Imperial Vision and Nonimperial Presence

   1. Item

      1. Text

         {{c1::Wang Mang 王莽}} usurped the Han and established the {{c1::Xin}} from {{c1::9–23 CE}}, at which point he was killed in an attack on the Chang’an capital and the Han was reëstablished at {{c2::Luoyang}}.

      2. Extra

   2. Item

      1. Text

         Compared to the Chang’an capital, the Latter Han capital at Luoyang had {{c1::double the}} population and {{c1::only two}} palaces, {{c1::the last time an imperial city would have multiple palaces at all}}.

      2. Extra

3. Han Tombs outside the Capitals

   1. Item

      1. Text

         Besides the existing vertical pit tomb style, Han period tombs included {{c1::a subterranean type carved from natural rock and}} used for {{c2::burials of higher-ranking royalty}}.

      2. Extra

         3.11. Infrastructural drawing of tomb of Chu king, Beidongshan, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, second century BCE

         

   2. Item

      1. Text

         The {{c1::/(huang2chang2) ti2cou4/ (黃腸)題湊}} “wooden staves with the yellow flesh (exposed)” tomb style that appears in the Western Han period consists of {{c2::a wall of stacked wooden stakes (1–1.5k pieces, ~1m long) enclosing the coffin or nested coffins at the center of a burial chamber}}.

      2. Extra

         3.13. Tomb 1, ticou structure, Western Han Tomb Museum, Yangzhou, Western Han

         

   3. Item

      1. Text

         The tomb of Bu Qianqiu exemplifies the common Han-period tomb type constructed from {{c1::bricks}}, as well as two aspects of Chinese funerary culture that would have long histories: {{c2::Bu and his wife are painted on the walls}}, and {{c3::twenty bricks across the tomb are labeled with numbers (indicating they were painted outside and moved inside by workers using the numbers as guides)}}.

      2. Extra

   4. Item

      1. Text

         A dome is a type of vault that is {{c1::built on a circular base and for which curvature is even throughout}}.

         It can be {{c2::segmented}}, {{c2::semicircular}}, or {{c2::bulbous}} in section.

         A ceiling that combines the vault and dome is known as a {{c3::domical vault}}. In this kind of structure, a dome rises on a {{c3::square or polygonal}} base, and the curved surfaces are usually {{c3::separated by groins}}.

         {{c4::Barrel}} vaults, domical vaults whose ribs {{c4::meet at a point at the top and with a flat apex}}, and domes formed of {{c4::concentric rings of bricks}} all existed in the Eastern Han period.

      2. Extra

         3.15. Evolution of Chinese vaulted ceiling from Warring States period through Eastern Han

         

   5. Item

      1. Text

         The Western Han “cliff tomb” 崖墓 ya2mu4, carved from natural rock and popular in Sichuan, is distinguished by {{c1::detailed imitation of architectural features in the stone interiors}}.

         Present in the interiors are

         • {{c2::caisson ceilings}},
         • {{c3::3D, multitier}} bracket sets,
         • {{c3::elongated}} bracket-arms, sometimes with pronounced {{c3::curves}} or {{c3::cloud-like}} patterns,
         • {{c4::fluted columns}}, and {{c4::central pillars}}.

      2. Extra

         3.19. Plan and sectional drawing of tomb 1, Fengtaizui, Qijiang, Santai, Sichuan, Eastern Han

         

   6. Item

      1. Text

         The caisson ceiling is often formed by superimposed quadrilaterals, 3D multitier bracket sets, elongated bracket-arms, sometimes with pronounced curves or cloud-like patterns, fluted columns, and central pillars

      2. Extra

4. Additional Evidence of Han Architecture

   1. Item

      1. Text

         Han stone que4 gate-towers or pillar-towers, built in pairs at shrine entrances or on approaches to tombs, fall into two groups: those {{c1::with squarish base and stones of diminishing size layer by layer up to a roof that imitates ceramic tile}}, and {{c2::“mother-and-child”}} ones {{c2::in tower-pairs of differing size}}.

      2. Extra

         3.23. Que, mother-and-child style, along approach to tomb of Gao Yi, Ya’an, Sichuan, 209

         

   2. Item

      1. Text

         {{c1::/Ming2qi4/ 明器}} burial goods were important evidence of Han architecture before excavation, because they often {{c2::depict (even fancifully) components such as bracket sets or roof tiles}}. Unlike much funerary art (and Chinese art and architecture generally), they {{c2::showed much individuality rather than being mass-produced}}.

      2. Extra

         3.24. Miniature tower, earthenware with green glaze

         

   3. Item

      1. Text

         A small-scale source of information on Han architecture is the {{c1::offering shrine, where homage was paid to ancestors}}. They typically had {{c1::three stone walls and an open front divided into a two-part entry by a central stone pillar}}.

      2. Extra

         3.26. Mortuary shrine of Guo Ju, Xiaotangshan, Changqing county, Shandong, dated inscription of 129 CE

         

   4. Item

      1. Text

         The five roof types found in small-scale Han evidence, which would be common for the next two millennia, are:

         • {{c1::simple hipped 四阿 si4’a/e (1)}}
         • {{c2::hip-gable combination 歇山 xie1shan1 (2, 3)}}
         • {{c3::overhanging gable 懸山 xuan2shan1 (4)}}
         • {{c4::flush gable 硬山 ying4shan1 (5)}}
         • {{c5::pyramidal 四角攢尖 si4jiao3 cuan2jian1 (6)}}

      2. Extra

         3.27. Most common Chinese roof types: 1. Hipped roof; 2. Hip-gable roof; 3. Hip-gable roof without chiwei (decorating ends of main ridge); 4. Overhanging eaves roof with chiwei; 5. Overhanging eaves roof; 6. Pyramidal roof

         

5. China’s Earliest Buddhist Architecture

   • some depictions of stupa-like shapes but we can’t conclude much from them

   1. Item

      1. Text

         Buddhism entered China in the {{c1::Eastern Han}} period, after (supposedly) {{c1::Han emperor Mingdi 汉明帝}} (r. {{c2::57–85}}) {{c1::dreamed of a golden image and sent emissaries to the west for an explanation, who discovered that it was the Buddha.}}

      2. Extra

   2. Item

      1. Text

      2. Extra

Introduction

• one of most important books in hist of cn philo for giving coherent doctrinal alternative to ruism
• Mozi ignored for a long time partly because of chinese neglect, partly because thought bad in style

The Mozi — Text and Translation

1. Part I: The Epitomes

   • 2.1: “If one does not cherish one’s own family, one cannot devote oneself to outsiders.” Here, the issue of partiality is clearly more subtle than merely recognizing or failing to recognize divisions. proceeding from love of what is close to love of what is far—this seems more appealing to you than a totally undiscerning “love” that actually denies itself any real involvement, or a parochial “love” that ends up hating what is far. don’t the Neo-Confucians think the same way, in starting from kin ties but making “Heavan my father and Earth my mother”?

2. Part II: Core Doctrines

   • mozi is weird. he basically wants to rationalize the government. avoid according status according to arbitrary stuff like looks or family connections and instead promote those who are best at their jobs. create an overall level of trust, “universal love” etc., feeling for people that they can rely on good results from good action and bad from bad.
     • it’s very practical. cos the kind of prosperity he wants is to keep everyone fed, increase the population, but cut out all non-essential consumption
     • he’s so reasonable and gracious with his goals but inevitably nobody listens. so why couldn’t he be practical enough to realize that would happen
   • state of nature: every individual follows a different principle → have to establish the best person as Son of Heaven to unify them. but he’s really vague about who selects the Son of Heaven!
     • it doesn’t seem like Heaven is involved in the selection
     • what is the source of moral right?? religious belief is pragmatic, again directed toward prosperity. is the person capable of unifying the people whichever can bring about prosperity? but how is the selection made of who can do that if they are disunited in principle?
   • 12.10: what the hell…he’s changing his mind
   • 12.11: “He is not a god. It is only that he is able to use the ears and eyes of the people to help his own sight and hearing, to use the lips of the people to help his own speech, to use the minds of the people to help his own plans, and to use the limbs of the people to help his own actions.” wow it’s like aristotelian slavery. YOU ARE MY LIMB
   • 13.1: you have to understand the feelings/conditions of those below you to unify them. if feelings/conditions are linked to people’s individual principles, we can say that it is through the specific content of their disunited principles that it becomes possible to unify them, though this unification has to be done through a single person. it’s not an arbitrary sovereign
   • 13.2: how do we know this is possible? by citing precedent. principles thing again.
   • 13.3: the world’s desire to unify the principles of the world. (what if one person’s principle entails rejecting unification, though? or is otherwise un-unifiable)
   • 13.4: rewards and punishment don’t work if principles aren’t unified. rewards and punishments can’t unify principles
   • 13.5: seems to push it back to “everyone can agree on benefiting the family.” but i thought fathers and sons originally had different principles? it seems like the publicization of good and bad actions is what makes people converge. but why should they agree?
   • 13.8: “exalting unity” seems to really just be the tactic of making public that your aim is unity and you are rewarding/punishing based on it, and based on information
     • we can definitely call this kind of unity “pre-ironic coherence”
   • universal love means regarding others as yourself. in this sense it is a revolution in subjectivity, yes? but he can only imagine it mandated from above
   • 16.14: it’s possible to change customs—from above, but this kind of reasoning is also there in his own approach to ghosts
   • 20.1: where does usefulness come from?? i mean, i guess he is determining it
   • 26.1: Heaven sees all, ghosts see all=he’s very intent on establishing a universal righteousness, huh
   • 26.2: Heaven desires righteousness over unrighteousness, i desire good fortune and prosperity over bad fortune and calamity (caused by spirits). Heaven and i can each bring about what the other wants. what if Heaven doesn’t actually do any of that, though??
   • 28.11: wrongness of theft is “because he did not participate in the work yet he seized the produce so what he took was not his.” what do rulers do to participate in work? only unify principles and channel heaven, it must be supposed
   • 31.2: great danger in people not believing in ghosts. but he doesn’t really sound like he believes lol
   • 31.19: even though ghosts might not really exist, sacrifices to them aren’t a waste because actually we let living people eat the food, and it lets them meet and fosters enjoyment
   • 32.4: food, warmth, clothing, and rest are what matters, and music doesn’t address these things
   • 35

4. The Tutelary Complex

Donzelot describes the functioning of the “tutelary complex,” a hybridizing apparatus which emerges from the judiciary while becoming autonomous from it, dedicated to the normalization of families. This complex is comprised of social workers, specialized educators, and—playing a vital role—psychoanalytic professionals. Its aim: identifying and correcting the pathology of children, both as children in danger (ones whose upbringing is deemed insufficient), and dangerous children (i.e. delinquents). The tutelary complex effaces distinctions of interest and aggregates power from both parents and judiciary, in the name of “the child’s best interests.”

• social workers taking over from teachers
• attached to existing apparatuses: judiciary, public assistance, education system
• focus on dual child pathology: children in danger and dangerous children
• bothersome antimony: social work as progressive, non-repressive, mild intervention or unchecked expansion of state power into private lives?
• 3 questions given
  1. What is the place of the judicial in the development of these practices of social control?
  2. What purpose is served by the psychiatric, situated as it is between the judicial drama and educative practices?
  3. What politics of the family is implemented by educative authority?

1. A. The Setting

   • family court a smaller, more discrete version of regular court

   1. 1. A shift in the content of the thing judged

      • less theatrical setting supposedly about making it more intimate, comfortable
      • actually keeps kids from revelling in the attention. anti-democratic, removing the public for the sake of the family
      • formerly would see philanthropes observing, prepared to offer to take on a child
        • later, with public not allowed, philanthropic organizations given special permission
        • “slave-market aspect” faded as philanthropes divided into
          • tutelary agencies, installed on dais next to judge
          • tutelary bodies’ agents of execution, who replaced them in the room
        • benemerito derived from Mussolinian code: “honorable” civilians interested in the problems of children. introduced into France in forties
      • visible form of state-as-family. father has no useful role, authority taken over by state

   2. 2. A shift in the form of the trial

      • 2 confrontations in conventional court: judge/defendant, prosecutor/defense attorney
      • juvenile court: judge on platform, accused looking at judge (not allowed to look away), mother behind accused, educator behind mother, defense attorney and deputy prosecutor to right and left of accused
      • attorneys feel out of place
        • prosecutor handicapped by “social” definition of court
        • clearly educator knows more than defense attorney
        • contradiction between them tends to zero. defense attorney identifies with court which has appropriated his role of concern
      • equal debate sidelined in favor of hierarchy of expertise hiérarchie technicienne
      • discourse of judge and child out of phase. child can’t deny wrongdoing without demonstrating bad character
      • parents and educators can only address judge, not each other
      • parents nominally defending child, but blame on child implicitly falls on them
      • juvenile court deals with children already threatened with punishment, effects a dilution of punishment. “help” always just pseudo-prison still
      • hierarchy of institutions superimposed
        • juvenile court for minors who have committed offenses
        • then same judge ruling in cases of endanger children (informed on by teacher/social worker/neighbor)
        • then only-nominally-independent Social Aid to Children administration
        • “child psychiatry”
      • continuity established between different corrective interventions
        • “Example: the placement of an overly truant child in a center is an educative measure that can be decided without the minor’s having committed the least offense; but if he runs away, he thereby commits an offense and becomes subject to penal prosecution”
        • another: minors accumulate suspended sentences that become enforceable with first adult infraction
      • line dissolved between investigation and decision. investigation is into personality more than facts
      • only specialists are really in a postition to appeal things
      • half correct to say evolution of social work is expansion of judicial apparatus
        • judicial apparatus does give it authority, does extend its domain through it
        • but its authority is increasingly symbolic, it rarely instigates control practices itself, and it sheds the m.o. that sustained its credibility (public, contradictory debate and possibility of appeal)
        • judicial apparatus becomes accessory component of control machinery where judicial framework is dissolved into stages

2. B. The Code

   • once, social assistants, police officers, psychologists, psychiatrists were direct agents of juvenile judge
     • judge determined, mandated collaborators, and was responsible for synthesis and conclusion from reports
     • social assistants were systematic agents of investigative mission
     • psychiatrists assessed those who maybe belonged under medicine, not law
   • “now,” 3 modes of knowledge (inquisitorial/classificatory/interpretative) have emerged, extended, combined, become semi-autonomous from commissioning authority of juvenile court
   • how the change?

III – Envisioning State and Society

• Qing problem had been central vs local power balance
  • dream of progressive politicians was to supersede this and make modern nation-state
  • parliament in Peking with provincial delegates. representation. revitalized local government
  • curbing power of foreigners
• dream collapsed within months of first elections, 1912
  • leader of majority party assassinated, organization outlawed by provisional president Yuan Shikai
  • Yuan lacked military power, organizatinoal skills to revitalize China
  • harsh demands from Japan
  • 100k workers sent to help Allied powers in WWI but did not obtain backing for China’s territorial claims
• result: political insecurity, intellectual self-scrutiny+exploration
  • belief among educated that country about to be destroyed
  • May Fourth movement
• many May Fourthers drawn to marxism
  • 1920 nucleus of chinese communist party in place
  • 1921 first meetings
  • cooperation with Sun Yat-sen’s Guomindang activists in impressive, effective strikes
• shared desparation+hope led to alliance
  • desparation: fragmented China
  • hope: reunification
  • southern city of Canton: new military elite, rural associations put together adding peasant numbers to organized industrial workers
  • 1926 military successes
  • 1927 disastrous for communists
• nationalists consolidated hold over country by end of 1928
  • Chiang Kai-shek remolded administration
  • US supported with money, technical skill
  • Germany gave military experts, proposed deals
  • Japan intransigent. extended hold over Manchuria. pushed south of Great Wall till northeast China declared demilitarized zone
  • intellectuals disgruntled by Guomindang appeasement of Japanese
• mid-1930s, Japan as spur of national renewal as well as enemy
  • communists driven out of base, Jiangxi Soviet, to north in Long March
  • Chiang Kai-shek kidnapped by mutinous troops
  • idea of nation remains alive

1. 12 The New Republic

   1. Experiment in Democracy

      • last Manchu emperor abdicated Feb. 1912
        • parallels to last Ming emperor hanging self in April 1644
        • depleted treasury, little money coming in
        • army troops barely under control
        • natural disasters: starvation, refugees
        • foreign pressure intense, invasion imminent?
        • separatists could emerge in central, western, southern China
      • differences
        • at least 7 predatory foreign powers, not just one
        • economic infrastructure being transformed
        • significance of confucianism questionable
        • institution of emperorship rejected by most educateds. seeking republican government
      • violence unpredictable, common
        • first taste of violence and politics for 2 future leaders
        • Mao (b. 1893 to farming family, Hunan)
        • served with student volunteers in Changsha
        • served as private for Hunan republican army. received pamphlets from socialist Jiang Kanghu (founder of first socialist party Nov. 1911) but stayed cautious, hoped for Sun Yat-sen + Kang Youwei + Liang Qichao
      • Chiang Kai-shek (b. 1887) to Ningbo in Zhejiang province
        • studied in Japanese military academy 1908–1910
        • joined Revolutionary Alliance
        • supposedly assassinated dissident who opposed Sun Yat-sen
      • restoration required Yuan Shikai link Peking base and Beiyang army to Rev. Alliance, Nanjing forces
        • needed integration of New Army units, provincial assemlies into national polity with constitution
        • Sun Yat-sen provisional president but relinquished claims after a month once Manchu abdicated due to less power compared to Yuan Shikai
        • March 1912 outbreaks of violence in Peking, Tianjin, Baoding justifying Yuan taking office to keep control
      • making constitution
        • elections for new 2-chamber parliament
        • 1910 October convening of National Assembly in Peking
      • National Assembly important for future of constitutional government
        • authorized to draft constitution Oct. 30, 1911
        • produced first version Nov. 3
        • 5 days later elected Yuan Shikai
      • meetings of provincial delegates
        • Shanghai, Hankou, Nanjing
        • formally convened (3 delegates each) January 28, 1912 as Naitonal Council
        • needed to ratify Yuan’s presidency
        • unanimously elected him 14 Feb.
      • Yuan’s ascent
        • born 1859. did not take state examinations. purchased minor title 1880
        • served in military, commercial posts in Korea. experience with Japan’s expansionism
        • after 1894–1895 Sino-Japanese war, appointed by Qing to train officers for modernized army
        • almost certain he helped Cixi overthrow Emperor Guangxu. also suppressed Boxers in Shandong
        • after 1901, governor-general of Hebei region. built Beiyang army into country’s finest fighting force, did reforms strengthening region
        • achievements in late Qing gave hope he could respond to challenges confronting China
      • Sun’s resignation letter: new pres. must obey constitution
        • new draft March 11, 1912
        • equality+protection of persons+property, freedom of worship+assembly, must convene full parliament within 10 months
        • council would then be dissolved and Yuan resign for new elections
        • 5 April voted to move prov. gov. to Peking: Qing national assembly superseded
      • preparing for first national elections
        • 2 chambers in Parliament. a Senate: 274 members, 6 year terms, chosen by provincial assemblies, 10 members from each province, remainder for oversease Chinse. a House of Representatives: 596 members, 3 year terms, ~proportionately by population, 1 delegate per 800k people.
      • Sun Yat-sen directed Rev. Alliance cahnge to centralized democratic political party to run candidates for office in Dec. 1912 elections
        • renamed National People’s party, Guomindang
        • placed in hands of Sun’s 30yo lieutenant Song Jiaoren. skillful organizer, but arrogant
        • Yuan Shikai dominated cabinet he had named. Song Jiaoren argued this vehemently
        • Song and Gomindang approached December with edge over 3 rivals
        • loosely affiliated organizations called Progressive party (head: Liang Qichao)
        • Republican party (v nationalistic)
        • Unification party
      • countryside developments equally important
        • local self-gov question in last Qing years: worry that reform councils would entrench conservative gentry
        • borne out after Manchu abdication
        • problem seemed peripheral. little addressed by Guomindang or their rivals
      • 1912 electoral regulations enfranchised males 21+ with elementary school certificate and $500+ property or $2+ taxes
        • 40 million men, ~10% of pop.
        • no illiterates, opium smokers, bankrupts, or unsound-minders
        • or women, though they tried
        • 1912 Peking suffragist Tang Junying led women to National Council in Nanjing. but rebuffed
      • results announced Jan. 1913: Guomindang wins
        • 269/596 representatives
        • 123/274 senators
        • dominant role for Guomindang selecting permier, cabinet
      • spring 1913 representatives travelled toward Peking parliament
        • victorious leader Song Jiaoren shot twice 20 March waiting to board train. died 2 days later, 31yo
        • would probably have been chosen premier
        • generally believed Yuan Shikai behind it
      • delegates assembled, tried to
        • get control over Yuan, develop permanent constitution, hold full+open election
        • KMT critical of Yuan’s finances: he took out a 25mil pound “reorganization loan” from foreign banks
        • early May 1913 dismissed leading pro-KMT military governors
        • KMT forces routed by Yuan forces in summer
        • September, Nanjing taken for Yuan by reactionary general Zhang Xun
        • October, forced parliament to elect him president for 5 year term
        • ordered dissolution of KMT
        • end of November Sun Yat-sen left for Japan

   2. The Rule of Yuan Shikai

      • foreign powers watching closely
        • no longer trying to maintain Qing
        • neutrality in 1911–1912, with troops+ships guarding foreign nationals, corridor from Peking to sea (in case of Boxers 2)
        • defending their investments, $788million in 1902, $1.61billion by 1914
        • into any economically favorable government
      • foreign investments concentrated in Shanghai, southern Manchura. wide spectrum of enterprises
        • Britain: ~$608mil stake including Hong Kong-to-Canton railway, shipping, gas/electric/telephone, tramways, coal mines, cotton mills, sugar refineries, silk filatures, a rope factory, cement works, real estate
        • Japan: $220mil/385mil yen, similar range
        • America: smaller, but ~$49mil. mission properties (hospitals, schools), Shanghai real estate
      • Japan+Europeans skeptical of Yuan Shikai. held off on diplomatic recognition of republic
        • US opinion favorable, though
        • US missionaries sympathetic, reform-minded Chinese educated in mission schools
        • Sun Yat-sen Christian. Yuan Shikai asked for prayer tho not Christian, got ridiculous favor thereby from US
      • China→US labor immigration still banned but vocal pro-republican Chinese students in US
        • US politicians thought they had special relationship with China
        • 1912 US election, Democrats pushed for recognition. Wilson won, withdrew from Yuan’s reorganization loan consortium calling it exploitative
        • May 1913 gave Yuan recognition
      • British minister in Peking outraged by recognition because Yuan had not guaranteed foreign rights+investment preservation
        • plus Britain wanted to ensure Tibetan autonomy (Yuan recognized later but was not ratified)
        • Japan recognised after large-scale railway deals
        • same from Russia after autonomy of Outer Mongolia acknowledged
      • govt still not secure
        • before late 1913 purge of KMT parliament members, Yuan did house searches for KMT membership cards. 438 found
        • parliament now lacking quorum. late Nov. indefinite adjournment. Jan. 1914 formal dissolution. Feb. dissolution orders for provincial assemblies, local govt org.s
      • semblance of legality: 66 men from Yuan’s cabinet, posts in provinces, convened
        • 1 May 1914 made “constitutional compact”
        • gave Yuan as president ~unlimited power over war, finance, foreign policy, rights of citizens
        • Yuan said parliament too big and useless
      • no mass base of financial support: govt lived on loans
        • at beginning, annual income of ~260mil yuan. taxes on land/salt/tea, dues on internal transit
        • by 1913 only 2mil yuan or less coming in from provincial land taxes. deficit of 13mil yuan each month
        • revenues on tariffs on foreign trade being deposited in foreign banks to pay off loan interest lol. outside Yuan’s reach
      • ambitious despite shortness of money
        • tried to make institutions for strong stable govt
        • team of talented foreign advisors (overpaid, underused)
      • worked for independent judiciary
        • impartial courts necessary for ending extraterritoriality system
        • Supreme Court (established by Qing, 1906) moved forward in commercial law, married women’s rights
        • all but 3 provinces had higher courts and so did many prefectures, tho Yuandid not encourage county courts
        • reforming penal system: prison-building program, improvement of sanitary conditions, provision of priosner work facilities, moral reform of criminals
        • education: expansion of male primary schooling (compulsory, free), experimentation with alphabetized manuals, teacher retraining
        • still insisted on study of Confucius
      • developing economy
        • attempts to raise crop yields thru irrigation, flood control
        • new livestock strains
        • promoting afforestation
        • speeding distribution of good thru low-interest loans, reduced railway freights
        • national survey of geo. resources
        • national currency centralized
        • suppression of opium smoking. opium dealers retreated to foreign concession areas
      • WWI eruption to Yuan’s advantage. Fr/Britain/Rus distracted
        • Japan picking up slack. declared war on Germany Aug. 1914, attacked German concession areas
        • China argued Chinese troops should be used against Germans but Japanese used their own and Britain went with it
      • Jan. 1915 Japan issues Twenty-one Demands
        • wnats more economic rights for subjects in Manchuria, Inner Mongolia
        • joint Sino-Japanese admin of central China Han-Ye-Ping iron+coal works
        • nonalienation of Chinese ports, islands to other foreign powers
        • stationing of jp police, econ. advisers in north China
        • extensive new commercial rights in Fujian province
        • Chinese hostility expressed in anti-jp rallies, boycott of jp goods. more extensive than 1905 anti-US boycott
        • but Yuan yielded (with modifications)
      • Yuan’s intransigence grew as prestige+popularity sagged
        • critics silenced by 1914 censorship regulations. penalties for printing stuff “harmful to the public peace”
        • reinstituted confucian belief elements as state religion to support his authority
        • chief participant in rituals at Qing Temple of Heaven
        • took on trappings of emperor
        • by August: pressure to make him so nationwide. Nov.: “Representative Assembly” voted with suspicious unanimity to beg him to become emperor
        • 12 Dec. 1915 accepted, inaugurating regime 1 Jan. 1916
      • Yuan and advisers thought symbol of central authority would be welcomed. but wrong
        • allies abandoned him. solidarity of clique of military protégés shattered. mass protests throughout China
        • Dec. 1915 Yunnan province military leader declared independence. Jan. 1916 Guizhou, Mar. 1916 Guangxi.
        • foreign powers did not support
        • “haha jk” (Mar. 1916), cancelling monarchy, but too late
        • died of uremia 6 June 1916, age 56
      • vp Li Yuanhong succeeds as president
        • power base weaker, no Beiyang army behind him
        • recalled members of parliament, reaffirmed 1912 provisional constitution
        • controversial since terms for representatives had expired. and constitution had been replaced by Yuan’s
      • in office 1 year when military coup occurred to restore emperorship
        • instigator: Zhang Xun, fanatical Xing supporter, military escort of Cixi during Boxer Uprising. had fought for Manchus at Nanjing in 1911, remained loyalist since. ordered troops to keep their queues. seized Nanjing back from KMT in 1913, named field marshal, inspector general of Yangzi provinces by Yuan
        • mid-June 1917 led army into Peking, declared restoration of 11yo abdicated Qing emperor Puyi
        • kinda pathetic
      • didn’t go anywhere
        • other generals in Peking region marched on palace. 2 aviators bombed Forbidden City, killing 3
        • mid-July, troops of rival generals stormed Peking, defeated him
        • he took political with Dutch delegation. done with politics
        • Puyi re-deposed but not penalized. but made to get modern education under Western tutors. lived in style in Forbidden City till 1924 when he was evicted
      • pretense of real strength in central government gone. presidency and parliament playthings of militarists. era of “warlordism”

   3. Militarists in China and Chinese in France

      • “warlords” were varied
        • Yuan Shikai’s protégés, or those from provincial armies, or local thugs
        • had whole provinces, taxes and bureaucracies, or only a handful of towns relying on “transit taxes”
        • some loyal to idea of legit republic
        • many worked with foreign powers
        • some controlled lengths of railway
        • some reinstituted opium growing for revenue. getting new scale like before suppressions of late Qing, Yuan Shikai
      • differed in character
        • some erratic. many with specific dieologies
        • warlord of Shanxi, Yan Xishan, claimed to combine best features of pretty much everything
      • regardless, fragmentation made unification hard
        • apparent coherence because positions maintained in name only
      • Duan Qirui (b. 1865) became premier in 1916
        • in 1881 was among first cadens in Beiyang military academy
        • sponsored by Li Hongzhang, sent to Germany for study of military science
        • then by Yuan Shikai. made head of New Army artillery battalion. head of a division of Beiyang troops in 1904
        • 1916 made head of staff officers’ college. built up clique of loyal young officers
        • commanded Second Army Corps in Hubei in 1911 rev. named military governor of Hunan+Hubei by Yuan
        • 1912 appointed to Yuan’s cabinet as minister of war. acting premier during 1913 purge of KMT
        • opposed Yuan’s imperial restoratino attempt, became premier after his death with backing from other Beiyang clique commanders
      • consolidated power as WWI reached crucial astage in W. Europe
        • wanted to join fr+en against de
        • us and jp also pushed that way. jp wanted to bribe him to recognize jp in north cn vs de
      • jp gave 5mil yen gold loan to Duan in Jan. 1917
        • Mar., got parliament to break ties with de
        • but Li Yuanhong and parliament wanted to make war decision themselves
        • Aug., after Zhang Xun coup he got cabinet to join him in war declaration
        • over next year, jp lent another 140mil yen
      • cn military strength trivial compared to euro fighters or us (which joined fr+en, Apr. 1917)
        • but had manpower. en+fr had lost tons of soldiers. chinese laborers on docks, construction projects could free up more euro males for combat
      • fr+en negotiating with cn starting summer 1916
        • processing plant for cn laborers in Shandong province near en naval base Weihaiwei. another later at Qingdao port. british called a “sausage machine.” tens of thousands of cn volunteers thanks to poverty, uncertain politics, generous wages offered
        • embarkation fee of 20 cn$, 10 more monthly to family in cn, volunteers provided clothing+meals
        • medical exman, checked for trachoma, tuberculosis, veneral disease. 100k made it thru screening. given dog tags sealed on bands on wrists. disinfected, urged to remove queues if they had them
      • first boatload of cn laborers travelling across Indian Ocean and thru Suez canal in 1916 sunk by German subs in Mediterranean. 543 cn lives lost
        • afterwards, recruits shipped over pacific to canada, across canada by rain, reshipped accompanied by antisubmarine patrols across atlantic
        • employment protested by my fr+en, esp. union members, but set to work mostly in northern fr
        • unloading military cargoes, building barracks+hospitals, digging trenches, handling ammunition. 10hr days 7/7 days, some time off for cn trad festivals
        • remained nonbelligerents even after cn declared war, since Duan couldn’t finance army in europe
      • 54k cn in fr by late 1917, 96k late 1918. complex problems
        • unsanitary, dangerous conditions
        • bombed by de. sometimes retaliated by killing de pows
        • some blown up by mines unexploded mines or shells, many ill from strange diet, damp, cold, occasional mutinies or ransacking of restaurants
      • YMCA saw as opportunity
        • recereational activities, public education. spreading literacy
        • James Yen, Sichuan native who got higher education in Hong Kong then graduated from Yale, 1918
        • formulated 10k character vocabulary, designed Chinese Workers’ Weekly periodical using those characters, wrote letters home for hundreds of workers. 50k letters a month mailed from fr to cn
      • almost 2k cn workers died in France and Flanders
        • more complex: legacy of 10s of thousands who returned literate and with cash stored up
      • 11 Nov. 1918 armistice ended war
        • Peking triumphant parades. memorial to Germans killed by Boxers demolished by crowd
        • Duan Qirui resigned Oct. 1918 after using jp loans to enhance his military power. replaced by another Beiyang factioner
        • delegation to postwar Versailles treaty negotiations. 62 members, 5 capable diplomats in charge
        • surprised to find out that in early 1917 gb+fr+it had signed secret treaty to support jp claims regarding disposal of de rights in Shandong after war
      • jp also had secret agreements with Duan Qirui, Sep. 1918
        • right for jp to station police, military garrisons in Jinan Qingdao
        • mortgaged 2 new Shandong railroads to jp to partially pay off loans to cn
        • Woodrow Wilson supported jp
        • 30 Apr. 1919 he agreed with gb, fr to transfer de Shandong rights to jp
      • cn president’s telegraph instruction not to sign arrived too late. but cn students, demonstrators prevented delegates from arriving for signing
      • new generation of cn activists

   4. The Political Thinking of Sun Yat-Sen

      • 1905–1912 leading Rev. Alliance, Sun Yat-sen had no detailed ideology
        • anti-Manchu, pro-republican, broadly socialist, general hope to make cn a strong modern state
        • generally vague
      • after Dec. 1913 settling in jp, started developing program
      • deciding what kind of party tobuild
        • more radical than Guomindang. named it Revolutionary party, Gemingdang
        • established Tokyo Jul. 1914. first manifesto Sep.
        • admitted fellow exiles discouraged. made himself “director.” oath of loyalty. secret org
      • felt cn not ready for democracy
        • 3-stage idea. party attains power, then leads thru military rule, tutelage. finally genuine self-rule, republican constitution
      • elaborate party structure. members in three groups
        • founding emmbers got executive, legislative functions
        • those joining in military period could vote, hold office
        • late joiners vote only
        • others don’t get full citizenship till third period
        • 5 bureaurs, 4 departments
      • without Manchus around, played down nationalism
        • started looking for foreign backing. approached jp govt, then californian financier, german govt
        • but mostly short of funds, relying on gifts from overseas chinese
      • difficulties formulating ideology, org form, strategy for party
        • everything in cn life under flux. fragmentation made planning almost impossible. tension between central, local power keen
        • Yuan Shikai tried to restore county magistrates, recruit civil servants thru exams. but they took office in atmosphere of terror as Yuan looked for KMT enemies
        • Qing elites of local landlords, scholars enhanced power bases
        • members of elit spread influence by networks of alliance, local associations based in larger cities
        • strengthened hold over local business+politics, exploited new econ growth
        • 1913: 700 cn-owned factories, cn$330mil, 270k industrial workers → 1920 500k workers, 1.7k factories, worth cn$500mil
      • tried to link Rev. party to bandit leader White Wolf
        • little ideology past anti-Yuan, Qing nostalgia
        • but thousands of recruits among peasantry, demobilized soldiers, victims of repression
        • roamed southern Henan and Anhui. base in Shaanxi till suprressed in 1914
      • Sun’s leadership challenged by former supporters resenting thumbprint oath
        • critics found refuge among SE Asia and US overseas communities continuing to use Guomindang name, not acknowledging Rev. party
        • muddle+frustration in anti-Yuan Shikai ranks
        • but with Sun, group of talented men
        • Hu Hanmin, 1913 Guomindang governor of Guangdong, did fundraising in Phillipines
        • Charlie Soong moved to Tokyo. his daughters married Sun’s friend H.H. Kong and Sun (tho Sun already married lol)
      • Sun Yat-sen returned to Shanghai when Yuan Shikai died summer 1916
        • visible but inconclusive role in politics for next 4 years
        • no meaningful use for his followers or ability to control those calling themselves Guomindang
        • but in 1917 when parliament disbanded, set up new govt in Canton
      • driven out by feuding warlords in 1918
        • semiprivate life in french concession
        • sat around analyzing problems of democracy etc.
        • phased out Rev. party and brought back Guomindang with new constitution in 1920
        • dropped loyalty oaths, formal levels and criteria of membership, formal tutelage stage
      • early 1920s, Shanghai power divided between foreign concession areas and succession of competing warlords
        • turbulent place, expanding industries, lot of opium and prostitution and organized crime
        • french made leading chinese racketeer be chief of detectives in their area
        • most powerful group “green gang”
        • Chiang Kai-shek making connections for Sun Yat-sen
      • Sun’s position tenuous
        • spokesman protesting Zhang Xun coup, 1917
        • protesting war on de
        • supported cn rights in Versailles negotiations
        • tried to involve Guomindang in political magazine scen by founding Construction (Jianshe)
      • manifesto in Construction in Aug. 1919
      • 25 years now since he had offered services to Li Hongzhang only to be ignored
        • country now weaker than it had ever been under the Qing

2. 13 "A Road is Made"

   1. The Warning Voice of Social Darwinism

      • latent fear since late Qing that China would cease to exist as a nation, its history ended
      • deepened by fragmentation of authority under Yuan Shikai, failure of republic, Versailles betrayal
      • Western Social Darwinism gave tools for understanding China’s situation
      • Charles Darwin, Origin of Species (1859): those best fitted to survive do so. heredity
      • British sociologist Herbert Spencer, The Study of Sociology 1873
        • species evolves homogeneous → heterogeneous
        • military societies run by force vs cooperative
      • Thomas Huxley, Evolution and Ethics (1893) reanalyzed Spencer
        • translated with commentary by Yan Fu as On Evolution (1896) and gave it nationalist emphasis
        • species struggle with species, then social groups struggle. weak become prey of strong, stupid subservient to clever
      • Liang Qichao, advocating 1898 reforms: heredity and education let species improve. have women engage in calisthenics for strong sons lol
      • Chinese thinkers combined Social Darwinism with thought of C17 anti-Manchu nationalists like Wang Fuzhi
        • Chinese history of creative adaptation? Chinese race history? national spirit?
      • reactionary part of national studies maybe counteracted by translation of foreign works?
        • Lu Xun: translating fiction/ poetry esp. Russian, E European, German. dismal reception at publication in 1908
      • 1911 revolution discredits Social Darwinism?
        • before 1912 election, Sun Yat-sen shits on it, says it looks barbaric in retrospect even if it was useful for early Euro civ.
        • 1913 though, he writes of world dominated by inescapable struggles
        • Yan Fu: 300 years evolutionary progress come down to 4 words, selfishness/slaughter/shamelessness/corruption
      • Social Darwinism → refusal to strive for social change?
        • Chen Duxiu (future CCP cofounder): our morality, politics, technology, common commodities are going to be eliminated by natural selection
      • Mao Zedon wrote first essay at 24 in 1917
        • rebelled against father, rural life on family farm in Hunan province, arranged marriage
        • served in anti-Qing army, 1911
        • then worked thru Yan Fu’s trans. of Mill, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Spencer, and Chinese philosophers. became student of First Normal School in Changsha. introduced to Kant
      • Mao initially thought the problem of China’s weakness was that the Chinese were physically weak. get fit faggost!!
        • Chinese “traditionally hated violent exertion” loll
        • wrote about it in journal New Youth, Apr. 1917
      • 1919 essay, “To the Glory of the Han People”: collective action of Chinese race as a whole
        • rhetorical flourishes like Zou Rong’s anti-Manchu diatribes
        • join the great tide of world change
      • 9 articles for local Changsha newspaper, Nov. 1919
        • combined thinking on collective struggle with reflections on women and their rights advocated in late Qing by Liang Qichao, Qiu Jin, others
        • face the world with whole population and not just male half
        • “On the Suicide of Miss Zhao” (who slit her throat on the way to an unwanted arranged marriage)
      • Mao: could have been avoided!
        • if her family had been more sympathetic or the other family had not insisted on the letter of marriage contract or if society had been more brave and open
        • arranged marriage shameful and anti-individual. but we must struggle for hope and not die hopelessly in suicide!! die fighting~!!!
      • but who is the main enemy? apathetic local society? warlords? corrupt politicians? foreigners? structure of Chinese beliefs and economic system with it?

   2. The Promise of Marxism

      • little Chinese influence in Marxism before Bolshevik Revolution
        • only sections of the manifesto translated
        • Sun Yat-sen’s socialism derived from Georgist anti-landlordism
        • Marx talked little of China and his stages didn’t seem to match China
      • slowly came around to recognizing interest of USSR
        • Jan. 1918 Guomindang newspaper praises Bolsheviks, then Sun Yat-sen congratulates Lenin
      • reflecting on significance of developments
        • Peking University head librarian Li Dazhao (b. 1889 to peasant family, Hebei province)
          • sold property to go to modern school. 1913–16 studied political economy in Japan
          • Feb. 1918 appointed librarian
      • Jun. 1918 salutation to Russian Revolution against backdrop of warlord politics
        • saw USSR as new, third civilization to mediate east vs west
        • USSR on the up, had surplus evolution for development (Spenglerian?) vs fading Britain, France and peaking Germany
      • study group at his office at the university
        • called “Marxist Research Society” by end of 1918. Capital reading group
      • Chen Duxiu (dean of Peking U, tho forced to resign by Mar. 1919, editor of influential journal New Youth) ran special issue on Marxism. 1 May 1919
        • Li Dazhao, general editor. scholarly analyses of Marxist concepts
        • Li essay, “My Marxist Views”: analysis of concept of class struggle, problem of capitalist exploitation. spread to influential national readership
      • Jul. 1919, Rus deputy commissar for foreign affairs L.M. Karakhan announces rejection of tsarist imperialism
        • relinquishing rights in Manchuria, tsarist secret treaties, indemnities from Boxer Uprising, returning railways
        • Soviets later went back on railway thing but Chinese still viewed them extremely well. compare that to the other foreigners!
      • by 1919, broad circle in Li Dazhao’s study group
        • Mao not student but attending. got clerical job at uni just to be around
        • Qu Qiubai, Buddhist student from Jiangsu province. mother had committed suicide. enrolled at Russian language institute
        • Zhang Guotao. smuggled guns as teenager for Sun Yat-sen’s orgs
      • needed to reformulate Marxist premises for Chinese context
        • urban proletariat and Communist party vanguard missing
        • but Russia hardly fit either
        • Li Dazhao interprets China as “proletarian nation.” whole country made part of world proletariat
        • corollary: because of international source, oppression is actually worse than for those oppressed by their own capitalist class (lol)
      • Li urged students to go into countryside, investigate conditions of life there (emulating Russian predecessors)
        • greater significance for China, where laboring class made up of peasants
      • Li wrote of need for intellectuals to dignify themselves thru farm labor
        • by early 1920, “Mass Education Speech Corps” of students did this
      • 1920–21, much of provinces of Hebei, Shandong, Henan, Shanxi, Shaanxi caught in famine caused by 1919 droughts
        • withered crops, inadequate govt relief
        • 500k dead, 19.8/48.8 million declared destitute, houses stripped for wood to sell or burn, refugees, many sold as servants, prostitutes, secondary wives
      • idea of examining countryside conditions spread to Shanghai, Canton, elsewhere
        • many later active in CCP or met with workers in reading clubs
        • Qu Qiubai visited USSR to observe developments. uplifted by poverty of Soviet life because he saw new nobleness gracing Russian character
          • sent home observations to Peking newspaper Morning News (Chenbao)
          • hung out with cool guys. attended Kropotkin’s funeral
      • joined Moscow communist party in early 1922
        • Li Dazhao told youth that roots of communism findable in 3 aspects of psychology: knowledge, feeling, will
        • Qu wrote poetically of such feeling, at least, before returning

   3. The Facets of May Fourth

      • Social Darwinist and communist ideas symptomatic of cultural upheaval called May Fourth movement after 4 May 1919 events in Peking
      • students meeting on 4 May drew up 5 resolutions
        • protested Shandong settlement reached at Versailles, sought to awaken masses to China’s plight, proposed mass meeting of Peking people, urged formation of Peking student union, called for demonstration that afternoon against Versailles treaty terms
      • fifth acted on at once. 3k students assembled at Tiananmen Square in front of Forbidden City palace complex, against police prohibition
        • marched towards foreign-legation quarter
        • funeral banners with names of hated pro-Japanese members of cabinet
        • handed out broadsheets explaining import of loss of Shandong rights to Japan, calling on all Chinese to join in protest
        • broke into minister’s house, set it on fire. politician beaten into unconsciousness
        • police beat one student who died 3 days later
        • police reinforcements arrived in early evening and arrested 32 stragglers
      • move to follow up on other resolutions
        • Peking student union. included women, gave formal support to coeducation. idea of broad-based student unions spread to Shanghai, Tianjin, Wuhan, etc. Jun. 1919, delegates formed Republic of China Student Union
      • reasserting prestige of scholarly elite
        • support from mnerchants, industrialists, shopowners, industrial workers
        • as many as 60k workers in 43 enterprises staged work stoppage or sympathy strike
        • stimulated by socialist clubs, study groups that spread in 1919
      • growth of new periodicals, newspaper
        • often in accessible vernacular style
        • growth of new force bridging class, regional, occupational lines
        • many May Fourth journals did not last but still expressed excitement of time
      • romantic Guo Moruo poem, 1919
      • people searching for way to return to Chinese culture
        • what does it now mean to be Chinese? where is country heading? what values are to be adopted?
        • different tendencies ofc. attacks on reactionary “old ways” like Confucianism, patriarchal family, arranged marriage, traditional education. reform of writing style to follow contemporary speech patterns. interest in traditional or avant-garde Western culture. reinfusing Chinese trad. arts with nationalism by borrowing Western techniques.
      • problem-solving approach developing techniques from various disciplines
        • or equally pragmatist adoption of Western science and technology?
        • pragmatists vs ideological orientation of socialists, feminists
      • most shared patriotic ground of wanting rejuvenated, unified China able to cope with warlordism, “feudal” landlordism, imperialism
      • movement in broad sense was country-wide, but formative thinking originated with faculty and students at Peking University
        • had risen to prominence in early days of republic
        • attributable to Yan Fu, who was its first president of modernized uni in 1912
          • persuaded government to retain funding
        • Cai Yuanpei, Chen Duxiu, Hu Shi: show success of uni
      • Cai Yuanpei, oldest and most distinguished: reveived jinshi degree 1890 at 22
        • was member of Hanlin Academy
        • educational official in his native Zhejiang in last years of Qing
        • then teacher/sponsor of radical schools, anti-Qing societies
        • joined Rev. Alliance but was in Germany studying philosophy when Wuhan uprisings started
        • returned 1912. briefly minister of education under Sun Yat-sen, Yuan Shikai. went back to Germany, France, established work-study program for Chinese students
        • appointed pres. of Peking U, 1917. defended rights of faculty/students to speak out
        • 4 days after May 4 demonstration, resigned in protest against arrest of his students
        • reappointed late 1919, continued till 1922
      • Chen Duxiu: “volatile and emotional,” intuitive not intellectual supporter of underdog
        • born to wealthy official family, Anhui, 1879. failed juren exams, 1897. later wrote abt how bad the trad exam system was
        • studied in Japan but refused to join “narrowly racist” Rev. Alliance
        • 1915 founded New Youth journal
        • 1917 joined Peking U as dean at Cai’s invitation
      • New Youth attacked Confucian vestiges
        • key flaw of Confucianism: it ran against independence of individuals that lies at center of modern life
        • must import belief in equality, human rights
        • must abandon classical Chinese for vernacular
        • “Mr. Democracy” and “Mr. Science” against Confucian traditionalism
        • Chen jailed 3 months for distributing inflammatory pamphlets demanding resignation of pro-Japanese ministers, rights of free speech and assembly
        • increasingly interested in Marxism
        • 1920 became one of first members of CCP
      • youngest member of group, Hu Shi, later saw Chen as extremist
        • also from Anhui official family. studiedin Westernized schools, travelled to US in 1910 at 19
        • philo B.A. at Cornell, then enrolled at Columbia
        • began thesis on development of logical method in ancient China but had not completed it when he returned, 1917, was named philo prof by Cai Yuanpei
      • Hu Shi supported vernacular writng
        • literary history scholar
        • pioneering study of C18 novel The Dream of the Red Chamber by Cao Xueqin
        • showed how novel’s rich social fabric derived from family of author, who had served Emperor Kangxi before being kicked out, impoverished by his son Yongzheng
      • difficult road for him
        • believed in advantages of Western methodology, rejected Buddhist fatalism
        • felt he was of transitional generation with obligations to past and future, doomed to make sacrifices for both
        • cultural/historical boldness alongside caution over speedy solutions
        • followed John Dewey’s pragmatism
        • summer 1919 attack on Chen Duxiu, “Study More Problems, Talk Less of ‘Isms’”
      • stayed at Peking U after May Fourth demonstrations
        • more conservative in early 1920s, tried to find “middle way”
        • had trouble resolving tensions. stayed with arranged wife he didn’t love but opposed marriage constraints
      • Margaret Sanger and other foreigners visiting
        • Bertrand Russell travelled China 1920–21
        • John Dewey lived in Peking 1919–20, taught courses
        • Albert Einstein visited in late 1922
        • Rabindranath Tagore gave lecture tour in 1923
      • May Fourth movement brought changes in consciousness
        • another influence: Norwegian dramatist Henrik Ibsen
        • 1918 New Youth issue devoted to his criticism of bourgeois hypocrisy, advocacy of women’s emancipation
        • his play A Doll’s House translated in that issue. central character Nora leaves husband to find own destiny
        • became symbol to young Chinese women
      • Bertrand Russell’s companion Dora Black: astonished at how girls at Peking Girl’s Normal School asked about marriage, free love, contraception, etc.
        • Lu Xun: women’s freedom is a sham unless it grabs economic independence and equality
      • Lu Xun a great writer of May Fourth movement
        • found voice at 35 in 1917
        • greatest stories published between then and 1921, including “True Story of Ah Q” portraying 1911 revolution as muddled, inconclusive
        • saw his task as critical excoriation of cultural backwardness, moral cowardice
        • have to wake the people up so they don’t suffocate
      • Lu Xun hated Confucian legacy
        • thought revolutionary activism could bring good change but was problematic
        • regretted difficultries of speaking across class lines, keeping any hope alive
        • “a road is made” when people walk the same way a lot. hope is this way, he says.

   4. The Comintern and the Birth of the CCP

      • youth need a plan of attack. USSR path good to look to but in a lot of trouble
      • workers suppressed in Germany, Hungary, Turkey. no wave of revolution
      • Lenin established Third International/Comintern, 1919
        • manifesto refers to “proletarians of the whole world,” supports those resisting colonialism
        • dilemma: support socialists over anti-imperialists or anti-imperialists over socialists?
        • Lenin says you can jump the capitalist stage of development with USSR aid and temp. alliance with bourgeois democratic parties
      • Grigori Voitinsky and Yang Mingzhai sent by Comintern to investigate Chinese conditions, look at setting up communist party. reached Peking 1920
        • visited Li Dazhao, who directed them to Chen Duxiu
      • Chen had left Peking for Shanghai. continued editing New Youth, made it more leftist
        • when they met in May 1920, he was restlessly exploring types of socialism
        • they left him with a clearer sense of direction
        • group of potential party members met and named Chen secretary
      • next few months, new steps
        • 2 front org.s: Sino-Russian news agency, foreign-language school. for recruiting
        • tutoring in Russian, then sending to USSR for training as organizers. socialist youth league founded, and monthly socialist mag.
        • Mao founded communist group in Hunan. others that year in Hubei, Peking, by Chinese students in Japan, and work-study students in France
      • French group became very important
        • Zhou Enlai went, as did Deng Xiaoping at sixteen
      • in France, stuents lived mainly in or near Paris, tho some in Lyons
        • some ran underground journals
      • Xian Jingyu, young woman among Hunanese students in France. demanded inclusion of women
      • students plagued by financial problems, arguments between rival ideological groups
        • 103 protestors arrested and deported after trying to occupy Lyons university buildings lmao
      • Mao might have gone but didn’t have contacts or money
        • just kinda hung out in 1920 reading
        • married Yang Kaihui
        • invited to be delegate from Hunan at Jul. 1921 CCP first plenary meeting
      • had to meet super secretly
        • Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao didn’t attend
        • Comintern agent “Maring” played leading role
      • conventional Leninist line taken
        • alliance with Sun Yat-sen? disagreement. majority say be critical but support some of his action. collaborate with Guomindang
      • Chen Duxiu elected CCP secretary-general in absentia
        • only 200 members by 1922, not including overseas
      • 1922 many return from France
        • Xiang Jingyu good at organizing women workers in China’s factories
        • her husband elected to Central Committee but her sidelined a bit :/ had to take care of children. policies directed by men
      • Jan. 1922, 40 delegates brought to Moscow for “Toilers of the Far East” convention alongside those from Mongolia, Korea, Japan, Java, India
      • temporary alliance with Guomindang for “first phase”
      • amorphousness of May Fourth movement replaced with focus

   5. The Industrial Sector

      • industrial sector had expanded
      • in late Qing, most significant development in areas of mining, iron production, cloth manufacture. Han-Ye-Ping company in Wuhan area. Hanyang ironworks, Daye iron mines, Pingxiang coal mines: Mao and other CCP members got first important labor organization experiences
      • chart shows annual production of coal/iron/steel going up a lot from 1912–1927
      • development of cigarrete manufacture
      • development in banking
      • stopped paying enough attention here

3. 14 The Clash

   1. The Initial Alliance

      • early 20s Sun Yat-sen did not really have power
        • ~21–22 named “president” of a government under Guangdong warlord Chen Jiongming but ousted by Chen by Aug. 1922
        • restored Guomindang, got longtime supporters Hu Hanmin and Wang Jingwei to draft new principles
        • new prominent figure: Chiang Kai-shek. helped Sun escape Canton in summer 1922
        • Comintern agent Maring visited Sun in 1921
          • Sun apparently not approving of New Economic Policy
          • fall 1922 allowed communists in KMT
          • Jan. 1923 meetings with Soviet diplomat Adolf Joffe. policy came out saying communism can’t be established here yet, pressing problem is national unification
        • a month later, Sun back in Canton after Chen Jiongming ousted himself
          • Sun establishes military government. no parliament left. they all went to Peking to get paid to vote by whoever needed legitimacy
        • needed assistance to stabilize govt, got it from USSR
          • USSR’s greatest eastern danger was Japan
          • Soviets unsure anyone in the north strong enough to reunite the country and resist jp
        • CCP in formative stage, 300 members by 1923
          • addressing reunification before other goals. so join with KMT. dual membership
          • senior KMT politicians sympathetic to USSR for its anti-imperialism
          • Hu Hanmin pro- hist. materialism
          • Chen Duxiu skeptical about alliance, despite Maring’s support for it
          • alliance and reorg. of KMT achieved by Comintern agent Borodin, Russian Jew
        • Borodin convinced CCP of necessity of alliance and pushed Sun to take more radical stance (8 hour day, minimum wage, confiscate landlord holdings)
        • Sun did not follow this but did let Borodin work
          • kept saying nice things abt Borodin, Lenin
        • Sun’s Three Principles of the People (anti-imperialist nationalism, democracy, socialism) declared official KMT ideology, Sun named party leader zongli for life
          • Borodin introduced democratic centralism, expanded KMT org
        • USSR set up Whampoa military academy to train KMT
          • had communist Zhou Enlai named director of political department
        • some communists among Whampoa cadets but most indoctrinated in nationalism, Three Principles, loyal to Chiang Kai-shek
        • Sun died 12 March 1925 of liver cancer but his strategy continued
          • Chiang Kai-shek beating random warlords
        • patriotism, determination in era
          • May ’25, Shanghai: Chinese workers locked out of jp-owned textile mill during strike. broke into mill, smashed machinery. jpn guards opened fire, killed one. wave of outrage, student demonstrations, strikes, arrests
          • 30 May, Shanghai International Settlement demonstration of workers, students
            • demanding release of 6 students arrested by british, and protesting militarism, imperialism
            • brits opened fire, killed eleven, wounded twenty
        • outrage spread. 28+ cities had solidarity demonstrations with May Thirtieth Martyrs. attacks on brits, japanese
          • Shanghai general strike
          • June: Canton protests, major strike in Hong Kong against British
          • 23 June rally of Canton protestors fired on by brits. killed 52, wounded 100+. 1 foreigner killed in firing back
        • Hong Kong strike grew. KMT and CCP channelling rage

   2. Launching the Northern Expedition

      • new staged in Peking situation
        • Zhang Zuolin, warlord who controlled Manchuria, moved south into Yangzi River region
        • gave sense of urgency to Guomindang, especially when in 1926 he allied with former enemy 1926 and took anti-Soviet position
      • Lu Xun and other intellectuals despairing. Lu Xun saw 47 students killed, several his, on 18 Mar. 1926 in anti-japanese demonstration
        • Liang Qichao, now 51, mournful. Peking as powder keg
      • how to reunite country effectively? KMT, CCP, Comintern advisers wonder
        • military + political campaign. KMT can’t go too far left without losing main supporters
      • demonstrated by Sun’s close friend Liao Zhongkai, who organized strikes and boycotts against brits. assassinated 20 Aug. 1925 (unclear by whom tho)
      • still, power of left seemed high in Canton, called “Red City” by some
        • 168/278 delegates at second KMT congress leftist or communist
        • rule to limit communist presence on any committee to ⅓
      • leftist predominance deceptive
        • Whampoa cadets formed anti-communist group
        • Canton leftist drove many businessman KMT backers out
        • incorporation of undisciplined warlord troups
        • “Western Hills” group of disaffected KMT members trying to get out communists and Borodin
      • 20 Mar. 1926 incident in Canton
        • communist boat Zhongsan appeared off Whampoa Island, interpreted by Chiang Kai-shek as attempt to kidnap him. he freaked out and started arresting people. tried to go back after but still weird
      • “compromise” between Borodin and Chiang weakened CCP place in KMT further
        • agreed because Stalin in middle of power struggle and getting their guys evicted would look bad
      • campaign for unification
        • moving north. 3 armed thrusts. 1 up completed parts of Canton-Wuhan railway or along Xiang River to Changsha, Hunan. one up Gan River into Jiangxi. one up east coast into Fujian
        • then hopefully either push north to Yangzi River, consolidate in Wuhan, or go east by river/railway to Nanjing and Shanghai
        • make alliances with warlords on the way and incorporate their troops
      • CCP and KMT party members move ahead rallying peasants to cause. but can’t alienate potential allies as happened with communist organizer Peng Pai
      • got workers to transport supplies. power of good pay. railway workers to disrupt enemy railroads
      • problems of money, manpower
        • money eased by Sun’s brother-in-law T.V. Soong, head of Canton Central Bank since 1924. promoted to KMT finance minister in Canton in 1925, quadrupled revenues. floated bond issues to raise money
        • manpower: 7,795 Whampoa graduates ready by mid-1926. early 1926 KMT report, Chiang Kai-shek estimated 85k men at arms. then another 30k Guangxi troops. ~6k cadets enrolled in military schools
        • Chiang Kai-shek named commander-in-chief, June 1926
      • announcement of move north to alleviate suffering of people under imperialists and warlords, reach national unification
        • mentions Wu Peifu but not Zhang Zuolin, hinting he should attack from north at same time
        • Chen Duxiu and communists not happy with timing. Chen: consolidate Guangdong first. but on Comintern advince they participate anyway
      • Chiang’s troops ford rivers and march for Changsha, Hunan
        • National Revolutionary Army keeps going north till catching up with retreating Hunan warlord forces along Miluo River
      • bold and successful strike across river between 17–22 Aug.
        • cut across Miluo in two places, severing Yuezhou garrison rail links to Wuhan
      • last week of Aug., seized bridgeheads guarding approaches to Wuhan
        • Wu Peifu tried making example of those who lost bridgeheads by publicly beheading 8 commanders. did not work
        • early September, Wuhan tricities began to fall
      • while waiting for Wuchang to fall, Nationalists suddenly threatened by warlord controlling Jiangxi
        • who rounded up KMT/CCP sympathizing “radicals,” beheaded them and displayed their heads in Jiujiang and Nachang. radical = Russian style short hair
        • terror backfired. Wuchang opened city gates 10 Oct. and Nationalists occupied it and counterattacked back into Jiangxi

   3. Shanghai Spring

      • late ’26, KMT and CCP consolidate hold over Wuhan, Chiang shifts attention to Jiangxi campaign
        • heavy fighting but by mid-Nov National Revolutionary Army controls Jiujang and Nachang
        • Chiang makes new base Nachang but other KMT leaders and lefter people set up in Wuhan
      • third thrust on east coast also successful
        • Nationalists now control 7 provinces: Guangdong (original); Hunan, Hubei, Jiangxi, Fujian (conquest); Guangxi, Guizhou (negotiation). 170mil pop.
        • British Foreign Office (previously supporting Wu Peifu) starts to think about giving recognition
      • debate over next phase of KMT strategy
        • Chiang Kai-shek: drive to Shanghai by 2 routes (east down Yangzi, northeast thru Zhejiang) to seize industrial/agricultural heartland
        • Wuhan KMT leaders, Borodin: northern drive up Wuhan-Peking railway, junction with sympathetic northern warlords, concerted assault on Peking, rout of Wu Peifu and Zhang Zuolin
        • Chiang rebuffed and insulted, 11 Jan. 1927. leaves mad
      • fate of Shanghai to be determined by: reactions of northern warlords, labor movement strength, nature of antilabor forces in city, attitudes of foreigners there, position of Wuhan KMT leaders, Stalin’s long-range strategy for CCP
      • northern warlords given pause by KMT success but remain divided. one of top 3, Feng Yuxiang, joins KMT, pushes from Shaanxi into Henan. Wu Peifu tries to make base at Zhengzhou but is too weakened
      • Zhang Zuolin shows grandiose side acting emperorish but his Peking govt is ineffective
      • Zhang became rabid antileftist. raided Russian embassy and arrested those there, including Li Dazhao. hanged Li along with 19 of his companions
      • labor movement making headway in central, southern China
        • formation of General Labor Union to coordinate actions
        • by late 1926, 73 unions listed for Wuhan, 82k membership, 100s of 1000s of workers organized in Shanghai
        • Feb. 1927 Shanghai labor leaders call general strike in support of NRA columns that had just captured Hangzhou
          • city brought to standstill for 2 days. broken by warlord forces. beheaded 20, arrested 300
      • worker morale and policial concern still high
        • GLU continues plans for 2nd strike
      • antilabor people in city
        • factory owners, financiers. linked to Green Gang Qingbang
      • end of ’26 head of Shanghai Chamber of Commerce visited Chiang Kai-shek in Nanchang, offers financial support
        • Chiang also negotiates secretly with Bank of China heads
      • foreigners antilabor to protect investments
      • foreigners shell Nanjing to help evacuate foreign nationals during unrest against them, Mar. ’27
      • Wuhan KMT leaders trying to strengthen position
        • could not alienate Chiang totally. focused on social reform in Wuhan, alliance with Geng Yuxiang, public denigration of Chiang for attacks on Jiangxi labor org.s
      • for Stalin, this is about argument with Trotsky
      • 21 March 1927, Shanghai GLU under CCP direction launches general strike, armed insurrection against warlords and for KMT. some 600k workers involved. sabotage, seizure of police and railway stations. no harming foreigners. KMT troops enter city. GLU inaugurates headquarters
      • Chiang Kai-shek enters city at end of March
        • CCP held back unions while Chiang met with industrialists etc
      • 4am on 12 April, men of “Society for Common Progress” (Green Gang front) attack headquarters of large unions
        • foreign backing and often assisted by NRA
        • Shanghai townspeople, workers, students stage protest rally next day. fired on by KMT troops with machine guns, almost 100 killed. further arrests and executions. GLU declared illegal

   4. Wuhan Summer, Canton Winter

      • according to Stalin this all proves Chiang is representative of the national bourgeoisie
      • now CCP has to work with Wuhan Guomindang, called “left” or “revolutionary”
        • Stalin hopes they will help crush militarists/gentry/“feudal landowners”
        • kinda silly but it’s true they are more left
        • most influential: Wang Wang Jingwei. also there, Sun Yat-sen’s son Sun Fo
      • Wuhan KMT goal: establish firm politica/economic base
      • communists might have been able to make real revolution in countryside. much peasant unrest
      • Mao impressed by peasants
      • but his reports not practical in context
      • Wuhan KMT comes to land redistribution consensus
      • military leaders start mutinying against KMT and killing peasants
      • KMT blames communist “excesses”
      • but Stalin still wants to keep alliance and still talks about agrarian revolution
      • comintern agent M.N. Roy shows Stalin telegram to a bunch of people and it only freaks them out
      • Stalin: this proves that actually the “left-KMT” are the petty-booj nationalists and we have to deepen revolution in countryside with TRUE revolutionary KMT
      • Chen Duxiu dismissed in favor of Qu Qiubai
      • Mao has to try to re-arouse peasants. but doesn’t go well
      • initially more successful insurrection at Chiang’s former Nanchang base. 20k troops. but defeated
      • Stalin needs insurrection to beat Trotsky. Qu Qiubai has to stage one, does so in Canton
      • Canton commune gets fucked immediately
      • Stalin blaims CCP

4. 15 Experiments in Government

   1. The Power Base of Chiang Kai-Shek

      • Chiang Kai-shek began terrorizing wealthy inhabitants of Shanghai after April 1927 coup
      • June, started boycott against Japan. also new labor alliance. working with green gang
      • Northern Expedition suffered lack of funds
      • Chiang went to jpn for wedding to Soong Meiling (despite already being married and her family’s Christianity)
      • no money while he was gone
      • 1928 Jan nameed commander in chief again, achieves funds thanks to marriage
      • reactivating alliance with warlords Feng Yuxiang (Henan) and Yan Xishan (Shanxi)
      • fighting beginning Mar 1928. conflict with jpn in Jinan, Shandong
      • jp won’t let them into Tianjin
      • Zhang Zuolin killed by jp assassins
        • KMT controls from Canton to Mukden
      • KMT must condolidate pol+econ
      • Executive Yuan (bureau) 1 of 5. under Tan Yankai
      • Legislative Yuan as legitimizing device
      • Nanjing made capital
      • regular income still difficult in 1928
      • have to demobilize military or can’t pay it
      • consistent budgetary deficit
      • need effective admin of countryside. would prove too much for KMT just like late Qing and Yuan Shikai
      • many rural problems unsolved
      • urban life modernizing, tho: medical care, schools, metaled roads, power stations, cinemas, fashion
      • but NOT good years for peasantry: depression brought disaster, death
      • KMT sporadically tried to address but were always short money and distracted
      • moderate land reform: James Yen
      • similarly, Liang Shuming
      • piecemeal efforts not enough, don’t address class

   2. Mao Zedong and the Rural Soviets

      • Mao censured by CCP Central Committee for failure of Autumn Harvest Uprisings and abandonment of attempt to seize Changsha
      • Mao’s actions pragmatic not dogmatic. CCP wants uprisings to keep masses at high pitch
      • but Mao’s experience in Jinggang has him less favorable to that now: head of lumpen mass
      • Jinggang forces suffered constant attacks and forced to send precious troops to help CCP elsewhere
      • end of 1928, forced to abandon Jinggang Mountains, going east to mountains between Jiangxi and Fujian
      • peasant dissatisfaction mostly directed against state and absentee landlords, not landlords generally
      • careful policy to not alienate wealthier peasants
      • late spring 1930 Mao meticulously studies Xunwu county, Jiangxi
      • gauges levels of exploitation
      • developed criteria for land redistribution
      • military planning experience, taught by former mercenary Zhu De. ordered to attack Nanchang but defeated
      • Mao pushes social reform in women’s rights
      • free choice of spouses and 1 party divorce
      • many divorces and marriages in Jiangxi Soviet
      • but also coercion of women to marry men in army
      • KMT attacks on communists in cities more successful by 1930
      • other rural bases besides Jiangxi Soviet
      • Gao Gang held area from Shaanxi to Gansu
      • new CCP strategy of giving up city in favor of peasantry